Blogs

How a degree from this school can shape me to become a better person.

i am applying for my masters at Texas woman university( Healthcare Administration program).  this need to be a page and half.

these are key point i want listed on this paper.

 

· At an early age Texas woman’s university has been the school of my dreams.

· My dream is to become a Hospital Administrator (oversee financial aspects of the hospital, Set budget goals and costs for service, and direct fundraising and fees for special cases, and how a degree from this school can make my dreams come true.

· How a degree from this school can shape me to become a better person.

·  health field is in my family ( mother is CNA(Certified nursing assistant), sister is a LVN (Licensed vocational nurse)

·  I promise to work hard*/ me being a hard worker

Create a list of three best practices to follow in the field of health services administration.

· 1

“Sum It Up” Please respond to the following:

· Create a list of three best practices to follow in the field of health services administration. Rank the best practices in order of importance (one being the most important) and provide a rationale for your ranking.

· Rate the three most important concepts that you learned in this course in order of importance (one being the most important). Provide a rationale for your ratings.

Bottom of Form

Maladaptive Responses to Immune Disorders

 

Maladaptive Responses to Immune Disorders

Maladaptive responses to disorders are compensatory mechanisms that ultimately have adverse health effects for patients. For instance, a patient’s allergic reaction to peanuts might lead to anaphylactic shock, or a patient struggling with depression might develop a substance-abuse problem. To properly diagnose and treat patients, advanced practice nurses must understand both the pathophysiology of disorders and potential maladaptive responses that some disorders cause.

Consider immune disorders, such as HIV, psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease, and systemic lupus E. What are resulting maladaptive responses for patients with these disorders?

To prepare:

  • Review Chapter 5 and Chapter 7 in the Huether and McCance text, as well as the Yi, et al, article in the Learning Resources. Reflect on the concept of maladaptive responses to disorders.
  • Select two of the following immune disorders: HIV, psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease, and/or systemic lupus E (SLE).
  • Think about the pathophysiology of each disorder you selected. Consider the compensatory mechanisms that the disorders trigger. Then, compare the resulting maladaptive and physiological responses of the two disorders.
  • Consider the types of drugs that would be prescribed to patients to treat symptoms associated with these disorders and why.
  • Select one of the following patient factors: genetics, gender, ethnicity, age, or behavior. Consider how your selected factor might impact the disorder. Then, reflect on how your selected factor might impact the effects of prescribed drugs, as well as any measures you might take to help reduce any negative side effects.

Discuss how the instructions found in 2 Timothy 2:15-16 can be used to  inspire Christian healthcare workers to consider quality in their work. 

Please answer each question separately. Each question must be 250-300  words each. Please be plagiarism free and also, make sure sources are  cited APA.

1.  How does the biblical teaching of the plumb line found in Amos 7:7-8  provide guidance to the Christian health administrator in the  measurement of quality?

2. Discuss how the instructions found in 2 Timothy 2:15-16 can be used to  inspire Christian healthcare workers to consider quality in their work.

Examine your ideas about the biblical concept of the Golden Rule and  present your philosophy of how understanding this scriptural context  might result in increased healthcare quality. 

Must be APA format, plagiarism free, avoid using contractions, and incorporate the christian view. 500 words minimum. Please check grammatical errors.

Examine your ideas about the biblical concept of the Golden Rule and  present your philosophy of how understanding this scriptural context  might result in increased healthcare quality.

Create a new form for the patient to sign, acknowledging receipt of the above documents

cenario

You have recently been promoted to Health Services Manager at Three Mountains Regional Hospital, a small hospital located in a mid-size city in the Midwest. Three Mountains is a general medical and surgical facility with 400 beds. Last year there were approximately 62,000 emergency visits and 15,000 admissions. More than 6,000 outpatient and 10,000 inpatient surgeries were performed.

The CEO and the Board of Directors have tasked you with developing an intake packet for new patients that will help establish patient trust in the facility and its employees. The patient packet will address new patient concerns by including information about HIPAA, informed consent, a confidential health history report, and a living will. The new packet will also include the values of the organization and a code of ethics.

Instructions

You are now ready to take the basic components you have created so far and, using those as a foundation, create the final Intake Packet the hospital will use during admissions. The Intake Packet will be comprised of the following elements:

  • A New Patient Letter to accompany the Intake Packet
    • The letter should be in business letter format (Here is a library resource for help writing a business letter.)
    • The letter should address the following points for the patient:
      • An explanation of the importance of ethics
      • Why each part of the packet is included
      • How the packet is to be used
    • The letter should also include a HIPAA/Confidentiality statement
    • The letter should also include a Privacy Pledge
  • The Code of Ethics
    • Based on your PowerPoint Presentation, create a one-page bulleted Code of Ethics
  • A sample Living Will
    • Make any necessary changes to your Living Will template and include it as part of the Intake Packet
  • Create a new form for the patient to sign, acknowledging receipt of the above documents

In addition, you will craft an email to the CEO and the Board of Directors, explaining the purpose of the Intake Packet and all its components. Your email should use proper email formatting (including subject line description) and contain language appropriate to the receiver. (Here is a library resource for help writing a professional email.)

Finally, develop a PowerPoint presentation with audio for placement on the Facility website. (Here is a library resource for help creating a PowerPoint presentation.) Your audience includes past, current, and future patients. In the PowerPoint presentation, you will address the following:

  • The Ethics and Values of the organization and an overview of the Code of Ethics
  • The Purpose of the Intake Packet
  • Explanation of the Privacy Policy
  • Explanation of HIPAA, and its goals and purpose
  • Description and encouragement to sign the form acknowledging receipt

The PowerPoint presentation (or other shareable Webware/software you prefer) should be done with narration in which you explain each component of the Intake Packet.

  1. The PowerPoint should be between 10 and 15 slides.
  2. Describe each component of the Intake Packet.
  3. Use the notes area on each slide as needed to expand on the key points.
  4. You may use a free screen capture site such as Screencast-O-Matic to record a video of your presentation. Screencast-O-Matic is a site and program that can perform screen desk and audio capture up to 15 minutes for free, and can be utilized on a Windows or Mac computer. (Note: You can use another, similar program if you prefer. Screencast-O-Matic is only a suggestion). Make sure that both your voice and the PowerPoint slides are captured on the video.

NOTE – APA formatting for the reference list, and proper grammar, punctuation, and form required. APA help is available here.

ANOVA Interpretation Exercise

ANOVA Interpretation Exercise

Prior to beginning work on this assignment, read the scenario and ANOVA results provided in an announcement by your instructor and the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Non-Normal Data: Is ANOVA Still a Valid Option? articles, review the required chapters of the Tanner textbook and the Jarman e-book, and watch the One-Way ANOVA video. In your paper, identify the research question and the hypothesis being tested in the assigned scenario. Consider the following questions: What are the independent and dependent variables, sample size, treatments, etcetera? What type of ANOVA was used in this scenario? What do the results mean in statistical and practical terms?

In your paper,

  • Determine what question(s) the researchers are trying to answer by doing this research.
  • Determine the hypotheses being tested. Is the alternative hypothesis directional or nondirectional?
  • Identify the independent variable(s), the dependent variable, and the specific type of ANOVA used.
  • Determine the sample size and the number of groups from information given in the ANOVA table.
  • Discuss briefly the assumptions and limitations that apply to ANOVA.
  • Interpret the ANOVA results in terms of statistical significance and in relation to the research question.

The ANOVA Interpretation Exercise assignment

  • Must be two to three double-spaced pages in length (not including title and references pages) and formatted according to APA Style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center’s APA Style (Links to an external site.)
  • Must include a separate title page with the following:
    • Title of paper
    • Student’s name
    • Course name and number
    • Instructor’s name
    • Date submitted

For further assistance with the formatting and the title page, refer to APA Formatting for Word 2013 (Links to an external site.).

  • Must utilize academic voice. See the Academic Voice (Links to an external site.) resource for additional guidance.
  • Must use the course text and document any information used from sources in APA Style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center’s APA: Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.)
  • Must include a separate references page that is formatted according to APA Style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center. See the APA: Formatting Your References List (Links to an external site.) resource in the Ashford Writing Center for specifications.

References:

https://digital-films-com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/p_ViewVideo.aspx?xtid=111550

María J. Blanca, Rafael Alarcón, Jaume Arnau, Roser Bono and Rebecca Bendayan

552

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) or F-test is one of the most common statistical techniques in educational and psychological research (Keselman et al., 1998; Kieffer, Reese, & Thompson, 2001). The F-test assumes that the outcome variable is normally and independently distributed with equal variances among groups. However, real data are often not normally distributed and variances are not always equal. With regard to normality, Micceri (1989) analyzed 440 distributions from ability and psychometric measures and found that most of them were contaminated, including different types of tail weight (uniform to double exponential) and different classes of asymmetry. Blanca, Arnau, López-Montiel, Bono, and Bendayan (2013) analyzed 693 real datasets from psychological variables and found that 80% of them presented values of skewness and kurtosis ranging between -1.25 and 1.25, with extreme departures from the normal

distribution being infrequent. These results were consistent with other studies with real data (e.g., Harvey & Siddique, 2000; Kobayashi, 2005; Van Der Linder, 2006).

The effect of non-normality on F-test robustness has, since the 1930s, been extensively studied under a wide variety of conditions. As our aim is to examine the independent effect of non-normality the literature review focuses on studies that assumed variance homogeneity. Monte Carlo studies have considered unknown and known distributions such as mixed non-normal, lognormal, Poisson, exponential, uniform, chi-square, double exponential, Student’s t, binomial, gamma, Cauchy, and beta (Black, Ard, Smith, & Schibik, 2010; Bünning, 1997; Clinch & Kesselman, 1982; Feir-Walsh & Thoothaker, 1974; Gamage & Weerahandi, 1998; Lix, Keselman, & Keselman, 1996; Patrick, 2007; Schmider, Ziegler, Danay, Beyer, & Bühner, 2010).

One of the fi rst studies on this topic was carried out by Pearson (1931), who found that F-test was valid provided that the deviation from normality was not extreme and the number of degrees of freedom apportioned to the residual variation was not too small. Norton (1951, cit. Lindquist, 1953) analyzed the effect of distribution shape on robustness (considering either that the distributions had the same shape in all the groups or a different shape in each group)

ISSN 0214 – 9915 CODEN PSOTEG Copyright © 2017 Psicothema

www.psicothema.com

Non-normal data: Is ANOVA still a valid option?

María J. Blanca1, Rafael Alarcón1, Jaume Arnau2, Roser Bono2 and Rebecca Bendayan1,3 1 Universidad de Málaga, 2 Universidad de Barcelona and 3 MRC Unit for Lifelong Health and Ageing, University College London

Abstract Resumen

Background: The robustness of F-test to non-normality has been studied from the 1930s through to the present day. However, this extensive body of research has yielded contradictory results, there being evidence both for and against its robustness. This study provides a systematic examination of F-test robustness to violations of normality in terms of Type I error, considering a wide variety of distributions commonly found in the health and social sciences. Method: We conducted a Monte Carlo simulation study involving a design with three groups and several known and unknown distributions. The manipulated variables were: Equal and unequal group sample sizes; group sample size and total sample size; coeffi cient of sample size variation; shape of the distribution and equal or unequal shapes of the group distributions; and pairing of group size with the degree of contamination in the distribution. Results: The results showed that in terms of Type I error the F-test was robust in 100% of the cases studied, independently of the manipulated conditions.

Keywords: F-test, ANOVA, robustness, skewness, kurtosis.

Datos no normales: ¿es el ANOVA una opción válida? Antecedentes: las consecuencias de la violación de la normalidad sobre la robustez del estadístico F han sido estudiadas desde 1930 y siguen siendo de interés en la actualidad. Sin embargo, aunque la investigación ha sido extensa, los resultados son contradictorios, encontrándose evidencia a favor y en contra de su robustez. El presente estudio presenta un análisis sistemático de la robustez del estadístico F en términos de error de Tipo I ante violaciones de la normalidad, considerando una amplia variedad de distribuciones frecuentemente encontradas en ciencias sociales y de la salud. Método: se ha realizado un estudio de simulación Monte Carlo considerando un diseño de tres grupos y diferentes distribuciones conocidas y no conocidas. Las variables manipuladas han sido: igualdad o desigualdad del tamaño de los grupos, tamaño muestral total y de los grupos; coefi ciente de variación del tamaño muestral; forma de la distribución e igualdad o desigualdad de la forma en los grupos; y emparejamiento entre el tamaño muestral con el grado de contaminación en la distribución. Resultados: los resultados muestran que el estadístico F es robusto en términos de error de Tipo I en el 100% de los casos estudiados, independientemente de las condiciones manipuladas.

Palabras clave: estadístico F, ANOVA, robustez, asimetría, curtosis.

Psicothema 2017, Vol. 29, No. 4, 552-557 doi: 10.7334/psicothema2016.383

Received: December 14, 2016 • Accepted: June 20, 2017 Corresponding author: María J. Blanca Facultad de Psicología Universidad de Málaga 29071 Málaga (Spain) e-mail: blamen@uma.es

Non-normal data: Is ANOVA still a valid option?

553

and found that, in general, F-test was quite robust, the effect being negligible. Likewise, Tiku (1964) stated that distributions with skewness values in a different direction had a greater effect than did those with values in the same direction unless the degrees of freedom for error were fairly large. However, Glass, Peckham, and Sanders (1972) summarized these early studies and concluded that the procedure was affected by kurtosis, whereas skewness had very little effect. Conversely, Harwell, Rubinstein, Hayes, and Olds (1992), using meta-analytic techniques, found that skewness had more effect than kurtosis. A subsequent meta-analytic study by Lix et al. (1996) concluded that Type I error performance did not appear to be affected by non-normality.

These inconsistencies may be attributable to the fact that a standard criterion has not been used to assess robustness, thus leading to different interpretations of the Type I error rate. The use of a single and standard criterion such as that proposed by Bradley (1978) would be helpful in this context. According to Bradley’s (1978) liberal criterion a statistical test is considered robust if the empirical Type I error rate is between .025 and .075 for a nominal alpha level of .05. In fact, had Bradley’s criterion of robustness been adopted in the abovementioned studies, many of their results would have been interpreted differently, leading to different conclusions. Furthermore, when this criterion is considered, more recent studies provide empirical evidence for the robustness of F-test under non-normality with homogeneity of variances (Black et al., 2010; Clinch & Keselman, 1982; Feir-Walsh & Thoothaker, 1974; Gamage & Weerahandi, 1998; Kanji, 1976; Lantz, 2013; Patrick, 2007; Schmider et al., 2010; Zijlstra, 2004).

Based on most early studies, many classical handbooks on research methods in education and psychology draw the following conclusions: Moderate departures from normality are of little concern in the fi xed-effects analysis of variance (Montgomery, 1991); violations of normality do not constitute a serious problem, unless the violations are especially severe (Keppel, 1982); F-test is robust to moderate departures from normality when sample sizes are reasonably large and are equal (Winer, Brown, & Michels, 1991); and researchers do not need to be concerned about moderate departures from normality provided that the populations are homogeneous in form (Kirk, 2013). To summarize, F-test is robust to departures from normality when: a) the departure is moderate; b) the populations have the same distributional shape; and c) the sample sizes are large and equal. However, these conclusions are broad and ambiguous, and they are not helpful when it comes to deciding whether or not F-test can be used. The main problem is that expressions such as “moderate”, “severe” and “reasonably large sample size” are subject to different interpretations and, consequently, they do not constitute a standard guideline that helps applied researchers decide whether they can trust their F-test results under non-normality.

Given this situation, the main goals of the present study are to provide a systematic examination of F-test robustness, in terms of Type I error, to violations of normality under homogeneity using a standard criterion such as that proposed by Bradley (1978). Specifi cally, we aim to answer the following questions: Is F-test robust to slight and moderate departures from normality? Is it robust to severe departures from normality? Is it sensitive to differences in shape among the groups? Does its robustness depend on the sample sizes? Is its robustness associated with equal or unequal sample sizes?

To this end, we designed a Monte Carlo simulation study to examine the effect of a wide variety of distributions commonly

found in the health and social sciences on the robustness of F-test. Distributions with a slight and moderate degree of contamination (Blanca et al., 2013) were simulated by generating distributions with values of skewness and kurtosis ranging between -1 and 1. Distributions with a severe degree of contamination (Micceri, 1989) were represented by exponential, double exponential, and chi-square with 8 degrees of freedom. In both cases, a wide range of sample sizes were considered with balanced and unbalanced designs and with equal and unequal distributions in groups. With unequal sample size and unequal shape in the groups, the pairing of group sample size with the degree of contamination in the distribution was also investigated.

Method

Instruments

We conducted a Monte Carlo simulation study with non- normal data using SAS 9.4. (SAS Institute, 2013). Non-normal distributions were generated using the procedure proposed by Fleishman (1978), which uses a polynomial transformation to generate data with specifi c values of skewness and kurtosis.

Procedure

In order to examine the effect of non-normality on F-test robustness, a one-way design with 3 groups and homogeneity of variance was considered. The group effect was set to zero in the population model. The following variables were manipulated:

1. Equal and unequal group sample sizes. Unbalanced designs are more common than balanced designs in studies involving one-way and factorial ANOVA (Golinski & Cribbie, 2009; Keselman et al., 1998). Both were considered in order to extend our results to different research situations.

2. Group sample size and total sample size. A wide range of group sample sizes were considered, enabling us to study small, medium, and large sample sizes. With balanced designs the group sizes were set to 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100, with total sample size ranging from 15 to 300. With unbalanced designs, group sizes were set between 5 and 160, with a mean group size of between 10 and 100 and total sample size ranging from 15 to 300.

3. Coeffi cient of sample size variation (Δn), which represents the amount of inequality in group sizes. This was computed by dividing the standard deviation of the group sample size by its mean. Different degrees of variation were considered and were grouped as low, medium, and high. A low Δn was fi xed at approximately 0.16 (0.141 – 0.178), a medium coeffi cient at 0.33 (0.316 – 0.334), and a high value at 0.50 (0.491 – 0.521). Keselman et al. (1998) showed that the ratio of the largest to the smallest group size was greater than 3 in 43.5% of cases. With Δn = 0.16 this ratio was equal to 1.5, with Δn = 0.33 it was equal to either 2.3 or 2.5, and with Δn = 0.50 it ranged from 3.3 to 5.7.

4. Shape of the distribution and equal and unequal shape in the groups. Twenty-two distributions were investigated, involving several degrees of deviation from normality and with both equal and unequal shape in the groups. For equal shape and slight and moderate departures from normality,

María J. Blanca, Rafael Alarcón, Jaume Arnau, Roser Bono and Rebecca Bendayan

554

the distributions had values of skewness (γ 1 ) and kurtosis (γ

2 )

ranging between -1 and 1, these values being representative of real data (Blanca et al., 2013). The values of γ

1 and γ

2

are presented in Table 2 (distributions 1-12). For severe departures from normality, distributions had values of γ

1 and

γ 2 corresponding to the double exponential, chi-square with

8 degrees of freedom, and exponential distributions (Table 2, distributions 13-15). For unequal shape, the values of γ

1

and γ 2 of each group are presented in Table 3. Distributions

16-21 correspond to slight and moderate departures from normality and distribution 22 to severe departure.

5. Pairing of group size with degree of contamination in the distribution. This condition was included with unequal shape and unequal sample size. The pairing was positive when the largest group size was associated with the greater contamination, and vice versa. The pairing was negative when the largest group size was associated with the smallest contamination, and vice versa. The specifi c conditions with unequal sample size are shown in Table 1.

Ten thousand replications of the 1308 conditions resulting from the combination of the above variables were performed at a signifi cance level of .05. This number of replications was chosen to ensure reliable results (Bendayan, Arnau, Blanca, & Bono, 2014; Robey & Barcikowski, 1992).

Data analysis

Empirical Type I error rates associated with F-test were analyzed for each condition according to Bradley’s robustness criterion (1978).

Results Tables 2 and 3 show descriptive statistics for the Type I error

rate across conditions for equal and unequal shapes. Although the tables do not include all available information (due to article length limitations), the maximum and minimum values are suffi cient for assessing robustness. Full tables are available upon request from the corresponding author.

All empirical Type I error rates were within the bounds of Bradley’s criterion. The results show that F-test is robust for 3 groups in 100% of cases, regardless of the degree of deviation from a normal distribution, sample size, balanced or unbalanced cells, and equal or unequal distribution in the groups.

Discussion

We aimed to provide a systematic examination of F-test robustness to violations of normality under homogeneity of variance, applying Bradley’s (1978) criterion. Specifi cally, we sought to answer the following question: Is F-test robust, in terms of Type I error, to slight, moderate, and severe departures from normality, with various sample sizes (equal or unequal sample size) and with same or different shapes in the groups? The answer to this question is a resounding yes, since F-test controlled Type I error to within the bounds of Bradley’s criterion. Specifi cally, the results show that F-test remains robust with 3 groups when distributions have values of skewness and kurtosis ranging between -1 and 1, as well as with data showing a greater departure

from normality, such as the exponential, double exponential, and chi-squared (8) distributions. This applies even when sample sizes are very small (i.e., n= 5) and quite different in the groups, and also when the group distributions differ signifi cantly. In addition, the test’s robustness is independent of the pairing of group size with the degree of contamination in the distribution.

Our results support the idea that the discrepancies between studies on the effect of non-normality may be primarily attributed to differences in the robustness criterion adopted, rather than to the degree of contamination of the distributions. These fi ndings highlight the need to establish a standard criterion of robustness to clarify the potential implications when performing Monte Carlo studies. The present analysis made use of Bradley’s criterion, which has been argued to be one of the most suitable criteria for

Table 1 Specifi c conditions studied under non-normality for unequal shape in

the groups as a function of total sample size (N), means group size (N/J), coeffi cient of sample size variation (Δn), and pairing of group size with the degree of distribution contamination: (+) the largest group size is associated

with the greater contamination and vice versa, and (-) the largest group size is associated with the smallest contamination and vice versa

n Pairing

N N/J Δn + –

30 10 0.16 0.33 0.50

8, 10, 12 6, 10, 14 5, 8, 17

12, 10, 8 14, 10, 6 17, 8, 5

45 15 0.16 0.33 0.50

12, 15, 18 9, 15, 21 6, 15, 24

18, 15, 12 21, 15, 9 24, 15, 6

60 20 0.16 0.33 0.50

16, 20, 24 12, 20, 28 8, 20, 32

24, 20, 16 28, 20, 12 32, 20, 8

75 25 0.16 0.33 0.50

20, 25, 30 15, 25, 35 10, 25, 40

30, 25, 20 35, 25, 15 40, 25, 10

90 30 0.16 0.33 0.50

24, 30, 36 18, 30, 42 12, 30, 48

36, 30, 24 42, 30, 18 48, 30, 12

120 40 0.16 0.33 0.50

32, 40, 48 24, 40, 56 16, 40, 64

48, 40, 32 56, 40, 24 64, 40, 16

150 50 0.16 0.33 0.50

40, 50, 60 30, 50, 70 20, 50, 80

60, 50, 40 70, 50, 30 80, 50, 20

180 60 0.16 0.33 0.50

48, 60, 72 36, 60, 84 24, 60, 96

72, 60, 48 84, 60, 36 96, 60, 24

210 70 0.16 0.33 0.50

56, 70, 84 42, 70, 98 28, 70, 112

84, 70, 56 98, 70, 42 112, 70, 28

240 80 0.16 0.33 0.50

64, 80, 96 48, 80, 112 32, 80, 128

96, 80, 64 112, 80, 48 128, 80, 32

270 90 0.16 0.33 0.50

72, 90, 108 54, 90, 126 36, 90, 144

108, 90, 72 126, 90, 54 144, 90, 36

300 100 0.16 0.33 0.50

80, 100, 120 60, 100, 140 40, 100, 160

120, 100, 80 140, 100, 60 160, 100, 40

Non-normal data: Is ANOVA still a valid option?

555

examining the robustness of statistical tests (Keselman, Algina, Kowalchuk, & Wolfi nger, 1999). In this respect, our results are consistent with previous studies whose Type I error rates were within the bounds of Bradley’s criterion under certain departures from normality (Black et al., 2010; Clinch & Keselman, 1982; Feir-Walsh & Thoothaker, 1974; Gamage & Weerahandi, 1998; Kanji, 1976; Lantz, 2013; Lix et al., 1996; Patrick, 2007; Schmider et al., 2010; Zijlstra, 2004). By contrast, however, our results do not concur, at least for the conditions studied here, with those classical handbooks which conclude that F-test is only robust if the departure from normality is moderate (Keppel, 1982; Montgomery, 1991), the populations have the same distributional shape (Kirk, 2013), and the sample sizes are large and equal (Winer et al., 1991).

Our fi ndings are useful for applied research since they show that, in terms of Type I error, F-test remains a valid statistical procedure under non-normality in a variety of conditions. Data transformation or nonparametric analysis is often recommended when data are not normally distributed. However, data transformations offer no additional benefi ts over the good control of Type I error achieved by F-test. Furthermore, it is usually diffi cult to determine which transformation is appropriate for a set of data, and a given transformation may not be applicable when

groups differ in shape. In addition, results are often diffi cult to interpret when data transformations are adopted. There are also disadvantages to using non-parametric procedures such as the Kruskal-Wallis test. This test converts quantitative continuous data into rank-ordered data, with a consequent loss of information. Moreover, the null hypothesis associated with the Kruskal-Wallis test differs from that of F-test, unless the distribution of groups has exactly the same shape (see Maxwell & Delaney, 2004). Given these limitations, there is no reason to prefer the Kruskal-Wallis test under the conditions studied in the present paper. Only with equal shape in the groups might the Kruskal-Wallis test be preferable, given its power advantage over F-test under specifi c distributions (Büning, 1997; Lantz, 2013). However, other studies suggest that F-test is robust, in terms of power, to violations of normality under certain conditions (Ferreira, Rocha, & Mequelino, 2012; Kanji, 1976; Schmider et al., 2010), even with very small sample size (n = 3; Khan & Rayner, 2003). In light of these inconsistencies, future research should explore the power of F-test when the normality assumption is not met. At all events, we encourage researchers to analyze the distribution underlying their data (e.g., coeffi cients of skewness and kurtosis in each group, goodness of fi t tests, and normality graphs) and to estimate a priori the sample size needed to achieve the desired power.

Table 2 Descriptive statistics of Type I error for F-test with equal shape for each combination of skewness (γ

1 ) and kurtosis (γ

2 ) across all conditions

Distributions γ1 γ2 n Min Max Mdn M SD

1 0 0.4 = ≠

.0434

.0445 .0541 .0556

.0491

.0497 .0493 .0496

.0029

.0022

2 0 0.8 = ≠

.0444

.0458 .0534 .0527

.0474

.0484 .0479 .0487

.0023

.0016

3 0 -0.8 = ≠

.0468

.0426 .0512 .0532

.0490

.0486 .0491 .0487

.0014

.0024

4 0.4 0 = ≠

.0360

.0392 .0499 .0534

.0469

.0477 .0457 .0472

.0044

.0032

5 0.8 0 = ≠

.0422

.0433 .0528 .0553

.0477

.0491 .0476 .0491

.0029

.0030

6 -0.8 0 = ≠

.0427

.0457 .0551 .0549

.0475

.0487 .0484 .0492

.0038

.0024

7 0.4 0.4 = ≠

.0426

.0417 .0533 .0533

.0487

.0486 .0488 .0487

.0031

.0026

8 0.4 0.8 = ≠

.0449

.0456 .0516 .0537

.0483

.0489 .0485 .0489

.0019

.0020

9 0.8 0.4 = ≠

.0372

.0413 .0494 .0518

.0475

.0481 .0463 .0475

.0033

.0026

10 0.8 1 = ≠

.0458

.0463 .0517 .0540

.0494

.0502 .0492 .0501

.0017

.0023

11 1 0.8 = ≠

.0398

.0430 .0506 .0542

.0470

.0489 .0463 .0485

.0028

.0029

12 1 1 = ≠

.0377

.0366 .0507 .0512

.0453

.0466 .0451 .0462

.0042

.0032

13 0 3 = ≠

.0443

.0435 .0517 .0543

.0477

.0490 .0479 .0489

.0022

.0024

14 1 3 = ≠

.0431

.0462 .0530 .0548

.0487

.0494 .0486 .0499

.0032

.0017

15 2 6 = ≠

.0474

.0442 .0524 .0526

.0496

.0483 .0497 .0488

.0017

.0022

María J. Blanca, Rafael Alarcón, Jaume Arnau, Roser Bono and Rebecca Bendayan

556

As the present study sought to provide a systematic examination of the independent effect of non-normality on F-test Type I error rate, variance homogeneity was assumed. However, previous studies have found that F-test is sensitive to violations of homogeneity assumptions (Alexander & Govern, 1994; Blanca, Alarcón, Arnau, & Bono, in press; Büning, 1997; Gamage & Weerahandi, 1998; Harwell et al., 1992; Lee & Ahn, 2003; Lix et al., 1996; Moder, 2010; Patrick, 2007; Yiǧit & Gökpinar, 2010; Zijlstra, 2004), and several procedures have been proposed for dealing with heteroscedasticity (e.g., Alexander & Govern, 1994; Brown-Forsythe, 1974; Chen & Chen, 1998; Krishnamoorthy, Lu, & Mathew, 2007; Lee & Ahn, 2003; Li, Wang, & Liang, 2011; Lix & Keselman, 1998; Weerahandi, 1995; Welch, 1951). This suggests that heterogeneity has a greater

effect on F-test robustness than does non-normality. Future research should therefore also consider violations of homogeneity.

To sum up, the present results provide empirical evidence for the robustness of F-test under a wide variety of conditions (1308) involving non-normal distributions likely to represent real data. Researchers can use these fi ndings to determine whether F-test is a valid option when testing hypotheses about means in their data.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by grants PSI2012-32662 and PSI2016-78737-P (AEI/FEDER, UE; Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness).

Table 3 Descriptive statistics of Type I error for F-test with unequal shape for each combination of skewness (γ

1 ) and kurtosis (γ

2 ) across all conditions

Distributions Group γ1 γ2 n Min Max Mnd M SD

16 1 2 3

0 0 0

0.2 0.4 0.6

= ≠

.0434

.0433 .0541 .0540

.0491

.0490 .0493 .0487

.0029

.0025

17 1 2 3

0 0 0

0.2 0.4 -0.6

= ≠

.0472

.0409 .0543 .0579

.0513

.0509 .0509 .0510

.0024

.0033

18 1 2 3

0.2 0.4 0.6

0 0 0

= ≠

.0426

.0409 .0685 .0736

.0577

.0563 .0578 .0569

.0077

.0072

19 1 2 3

0.2 0.4 -0.6

0 0 0

= ≠

.0481

.0449 .0546 .0574

.0501

.0497 .0504 .0499

.0020

.0024

20 1 2 3

0.2 0.4 0.6

0.4 0.6 0.8

= ≠

.0474

.0433 .0524 .0662

.0496

.0535 .0497 .0545

.0017

.0057

21 1 2 3

0.2 0.6 1

0.4 0.8 1.2

= ≠

.0462

.0419 .0537 .0598

.0503

.0499 .0501 .0502

.0024

.0025

22 1 2 3

0 1 2

3 3 6

= ≠

.0460

.0424 .0542 .0577

.0490

.0503 .0494 .0499

.0027

.0029

References

Alexander, R. A., & Govern, D. M. (1994). A new and simpler approximation for ANOVA under variance heterogeneity. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 19, 91-101.

Bendayan, R., Arnau, J., Blanca, M. J., & Bono, R. (2014). Comparison of the procedures of Fleishman and Ramberg et al., for generating non- normal data in simulation studies. Anales de Psicología, 30, 364-371.

Black, G., Ard, D., Smith, J., & Schibik, T. (2010). The impact of the Weibull distribution on the performance of the single-factor ANOVA model. International Journal of Industrial Engineering Computations, 1, 185-198.

Blanca, M. J., Alarcón, R., Arnau, J., & Bono, R. (in press). Effect of variance ratio on ANOVA robustness: Might 1.5 be the limit? Behavior Research Methods.

Blanca, M. J., Arnau, J., López-Montiel, D., Bono, R., & Bendayan, R. (2013). Skewness and kurtosis in real data samples. Methodology, 9, 78-84.

Bradley, J. V. (1978). Robustness? British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 31, 144-152.

Brown, M.B., & Forsythe, A.B. (1974). The small sample behaviour of some statistics which test the equality of several means. Technomectrics, 16, 129-132.

Büning, H. (1997). Robust analysis of variance. Journal of Applied Statistics, 24, 319-332.

Chen, S.Y., & Chen, H.J. (1998). Single-stage analysis of variance under heteroscedasticity. Communications in Statistics – Simulation and Computation, 27, 641-666.

Clinch, J. J., & Kesselman, H. J. (1982). Parametric alternatives to the analysis of variance. Journal of Educational Statistics, 7, 207-214.

Feir-Walsh, B. J., & Thoothaker, L. E. (1974). An empirical comparison of the ANOVA F-test, normal scores test and Kruskal-Wallis test under violation of assumptions. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34, 789-799.

Ferreira, E. B., Rocha, M. C., & Mequelino, D. B. (2012). Monte Carlo evaluation of the ANOVA’s F and Kruskal-Wallis tests under binomial distribution. Sigmae, 1, 126-139.

Non-normal data: Is ANOVA still a valid option?

557

Fleishman, A. I. (1978). A method for simulating non-normal distributions. Psychometrika, 43, 521-532.

Gamage, J., & Weerahandi, S. (1998). Size performance of some tests in one-way ANOVA. Communications in Statistics – Simulation and Computation, 27, 625-640.

Glass, G. V., Peckham, P. D., & Sanders, J. R. (1972). Consequences of failure to meet assumptions underlying the fi xed effects analyses of variance and covariance. Review of Educational Research, 42, 237-288.

Golinski, C., & Cribbie, R. A. (2009). The expanding role of quantitative methodologists in advancing psychology. Canadian Psychology, 50, 83-90.

Harvey, C., & Siddique, A. (2000). Conditional skewness in asset pricing test. Journal of Finance, 55, 1263-1295.

Harwell, M. R., Rubinstein, E. N., Hayes, W. S., & Olds, C. C. (1992). Summarizing Monte Carlo results in methodological research: The one- and two-factor fi xed effects ANOVA cases. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 17, 315-339.

Kanji, G. K. (1976). Effect of non-normality on the power in analysis of variance: A simulation study. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 7, 155-160.

Keppel, G. (1982). Design and analysis. A researcher’s handbook (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Keselman, H. J., Algina, J., Kowalchuk, R. K., & Wolfi nger, R. D. (1999). A comparison of recent approaches to the analysis of repeated measurements. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 52, 63-78.

Keselman, H. J., Huberty, C. J., Lix, L. M., Olejnik, S., Cribbie, R. A., Donahue, B.,…, Levin, J. R. (1998). Statistical practices of educational researchers: An analysis of their ANOVA, MANOVA, and ANCOVA analyses. Review of Educational Research, 68, 350-386.

Khan, A., & Rayner, G. D. (2003). Robustness to non-normality of common tests for the many-sample location problem. Journal of Applied Mathematics and Decision Sciences, 7, 187-206.

Kieffer, K. M., Reese, R. J., & Thompson, B. (2001). Statistical techniques employed in AERJ and JCP articles from 1988 to 1997: A methodological review. The Journal of Experimental Education, 69, 280-309.

Kirk, R. E. (2013). Experimental design. Procedures for the behavioral sciences (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Kobayashi, K. (2005). Analysis of quantitative data obtained from toxicity studies showing non-normal distribution. The Journal of Toxicological Science, 30, 127-134.

Krishnamoorthy, K., Lu, F., & Mathew, T. (2007). A parametric bootstrap approach for ANOVA with unequal variances: Fixed and random models. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis 51, 5731-5742.

Lantz, B. (2013). The impact of sample non-normality on ANOVA and alternative methods. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 66, 224-244.

Lee, S., & Ahn, C. H. (2003). Modifi ed ANOVA for unequal variances. Communications in Statistics – Simulation and Computation, 32, 987- 1004.

Li, X., Wang, J., & Liang, H. (2011). Comparison of several means: A fi ducial based approach. Computational Statistics and Data Analysis, 55, 1993-2002.

Lindquist, E. F. (1953). Design and analysis of experiments in psychology and education. Boston: Houghton Miffl in.

Lix, L.M., & Keselman, H.J. (1998). To trim or not to trim: Tests of mean equality under heteroscedasticity and nonnormality. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58, 409-429.

Lix, L. M., Keselman, J. C., & Keselman, H. J. (1996). Consequences of assumption violations revisited: A quantitative review of alternatives to the one-way analysis of variance F test. Review of Educational Research, 66, 579-619.

Maxwell, S. E., & Delaney, H. D. (2004). Designing experiments and analyzing data: A model comparison perspective (2nd ed.). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Micceri, T. (1989). The unicorn, the normal curve, and other improbable creatures. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 156-166.

Moder, K. (2010). Alternatives to F-test in one way ANOVA in case of heterogeneity of variances (a simulation study). Psychological Test and Assessment Modeling, 52, 343-353.

Montgomery, D. C. (1991). Design and analysis of experiments (3rd ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Patrick, J. D. (2007). Simulations to analyze Type I error and power in the ANOVA F test and nonparametric alternatives (Master’s thesis, University of West Florida). Retrieved from http://etd.fcla.edu/WF/ WFE0000158/Patrick_Joshua_Daniel_200905_MS.pdf

Pearson, E. S. (1931). The analysis of variance in cases of non-normal variation. Biometrika, 23, 114-133.

Robey, R. R., & Barcikowski, R. S. (1992). Type I error and the number of iterations in Monte Carlo studies of robustness. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 45, 283-288.

SAS Institute Inc. (2013). SAS® 9.4 guide to software Updates. Cary: SAS Institute Inc.

Schmider, E., Ziegler, M., Danay, E., Beyer, L., & Bühner, M. (2010). Is it really robust? Reinvestigating the robustness of ANOVA against violations of the normal distribution assumption. Methodology, 6, 147- 151.

Tiku, M. L. (1964). Approximating the general non-normal variance-ratio sampling distributions. Biometrika, 51, 83-95.

Van Der Linder, W. J. (2006). A lognormal model for response times on test items. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 181- 204.

Welch, B.L. (1951). On the comparison of several mean values: An alternative approach. Biometrika, 38, 330-336.

Weerahandi, S. (1995). ANOVA under unequal error variances. Biometrics, 51, 589-599.

Winer, B. J., Brown, D. R., & Michels, K. M. (1991). Statistical principles in experimental design (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Yiğit, E., & Gökpınar, F. (2010). A Simulation study on tests for one-way ANOVA under the unequal variance assumption. Communications Faculty of Sciences University of Ankara, Series A1, 59, 15-34.

Zijlstra, W. (2004). Comparing the Student´s t and the ANOVA contrast procedure with fi ve alternative procedures (Master’s thesis, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen). Retrieved from http://www.ppsw.rug. nl/~kiers/ReportZijlstra.pdf

Copyright of Psicothema is the property of Colegio Oficial de Psicologos del Principado de Asturias and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Analyze the argument from Part I. Identify and label the logical fallacies used in the argument. Be specific, using and citing sources to support your definitions of each fallacy.

Assignment Details

This Assignment has two parts. In Part I, you will test your understanding of fallacies by creating an argument with fallacies in it. In Part II, you will identify the fallacies and explain how they operate.

Part I:

Consider a scenario where someone is using errors in argument. For example, the argument may focus on errors that customers or colleagues make in your field of study. It could be how the public perceives your field, how a newcomer to your field may make errors, or addressing a controversial topic in your field. If you would like to write about your life at home instead of at work, this may be the sort of argument that teenagers give to their parents during a disagreement. It could be a disagreement you have had with friends or family members. You get to choose the situation.

The Assignment should be 1–2 pages and should be composed in first person as the person making the errors. You should be deliberately employing at least four logical fallacies in the argument. The person making the argument likely does not know they are making mistakes. You will be correcting these errors in Part II. However, in Part I, have fun showing how errors in argument make their way into daily life. Some may be exaggerated, but some may be subtle.

In the sections of the paper where you are using a logical fallacy, you should highlight the error in bold. This will demonstrate that the fallacies are deliberately used in your composition.

While the paper will have errors in argument, aim not to have errors in spelling or grammar. The work should still be composed to demonstrate college-level writing, clarity, and organization.

Part II:

The content for Part II should be at least 2 pages, and it will require a reference page, which is not included in the page requirement.

In Part II, you will analyze the purposely flawed argument that you created in Part I. You will take on the role of a leader in your profession or of someone offering guidance to help a friend or family member understand their errors.

In the scenario for Part II, you have been asked to address the errors with the person voicing the argument in Part I. You should not be harsh with the person who made the mistakes, but you will use leadership, knowledge, and compassion to help make corrections. Offer diplomatic guidance that encourages without chastising the subject. Use your critical thinking and analytical skills to evaluate the Part I arguments, explain how they should be corrected, and offer guidance for improved argumentation in the future.

  1. Analyze the argument from Part I. Identify and label the logical fallacies used in the argument. Be specific, using and citing sources to support your definitions of each fallacy.
  2. Using clear argumentation, explain the implications of those fallacies in the workplace or daily life and why the fallacies would be problematic. What could be a consequence of this reasoning? Why do you believe the person making the argument used these tactics?
  3. Offer guidance: How could the person constructing this argument avoid making those mistakes in argumentation? What would have strengthened each of the claims?

Save Parts I and II in the same document and submit the work to the Dropbox.

Identify the use of ethos, pathos, and logos in the commercial.

You have had a chance to see tools of persuasion in the Three Proofs and to examine visual arguments in methods of persuasion. For this Assignment, you will compose a critical thinking analysis of two television commercials. The paper should be at least 600 words long.

You will select two television or online commercials for the project. If you do not regularly watch television, you can still complete the Assignment by searching YouTube® or individual company websites to find advertisements for products, goods, or services. Choose one commercial that you think is effective and persuasive, and another that you think fails to make a strong argument.

In the same document, you will conduct two analyses. Part I is on the effective and persuasive commercial, and Part II will cover the less persuasive commercial. You should answer the following four sections for each. Answer all of the questions for Part I first, then answer all of the questions for Part II.

  1. First, you will describe what happens in the commercial. Assume that the reader has not seen it. Explain the use of words, images, and sounds. What do you see?
  2. Next, use the premises–conclusion format to offer about three to four premises that lead to what you believe is the conclusion of the commercial. Label each premise and the conclusion. Then explain why you labeled each part as such. What makes each section a reflection of a premise (evidence, reason) or the conclusion?
  3. Identify the use of ethos, pathos, and logos in the commercial. Use and cite the definitions of each term from the reading or your research. Discuss what the commercials have done well or what is lacking.
  4. Finally, offer two suggestions that would strengthen the commercial. What would make the effective commercial even stronger? What would cause this ineffective commercial to become persuasive? Explain why this would make a difference in the outcome for the commercial.

Save Part I and Part II in the same document and submit it to the Dropbox for grading.

In this assignment, you will assess your understanding of the Christian worldview, including the main topics you have covered up to this point.

In this assignment, you will assess your understanding of the Christian worldview, including the main topics you have covered up to this point. You will summarize and analyze the essential elements of the Christian worldview and reflect on implications for your own worldview.

Write a 1,250-1,500-word essay using at least two course resources (textbook, lectures, the Bible) and at least two other sources. Remember, the Bible counts as one reference regardless of how many times you use it or how many verses you cite.

Begin your paper with an appropriate introduction, including a thesis statement to introduce the purpose of the paper.

Organize your paper with the following sections, using the seven underlined titles for subheadings.

Write at least one paragraph for each component using the underlined titles for a subheading.

  1. God: What is God like? What are God’s characteristics? What is his creation?
  2. Humanity: What is human nature? What is human purpose? What is the root cause of human problems?
  3. Jesus: What is Jesus’ true identity? What did Jesus do? Why is Jesus’ identity and work significant for the Christian worldview?
  4. Restoration: What is the solution to human problems according to the Christian worldview? What role do grace and faith play in Christian salvation? How do Christians think that the transformation of self and society happen?
  5. Analysis: Analyze the Christian worldview by addressing each of the following questions: What are the benefits or strengths of Christian belief? What is troublesome or confusing about Christianity? How does Christianity influence a person’s thinking and behavior?
  6. Reflection: Reflect on your worldview by answering one of the following questions: If you are not a Christian, what similarities and differences are there between your worldview and the Christian worldview? If you are a Christian, how specifically do you live out the beliefs of the Christian worldview?
  7. Conclusion: Synthesize the main points, pulling the ideas of the paper together.
  8. References

What components do you, as a researcher, think the article should have included about the study? 

When we read journal articles, we are reading the most academic, technical version of that study, as interpreted directly by the researchers themselves. However, by the time the findings get translated to the popular media, they can be vastly exaggerated, overstated, or otherwise incorrectly represent the results of the study (that’s why every year we have studies that contradict each other- often, the media just overstated the significance of one particular study to make an attention-grabbing conclusion and it gains popular traction because it’s “new” or “shocking”).

Podcast: https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/voxs-the-weeds/e/55730140

After listening to the podcast above check out these articles that describe these issues:

https://www.vox.com/2015/3/23/8264355/research-study-hype

Instructions: For this assignment, find a news article about some healthcare topic that makes reference to a study done in a peer-reviewed journal article or reputable organization (such as the NIH). Critique how the article represents the study. Now that you know what to look for in a study, you’ll know what details are missing or might be overstated. Often, the articles will link to the studies themselves- if they do, skim the study.

Questions to be answered:

-What components do you, as a researcher, think the article should have included about the study?

-Do you think the newspaper article’s conclusion about the study is valid, or is it misleading to the general public?

-What did you learn from the articles I posted above about this issue? ***The 3 articles I have added at the top***

The article must have some reference to a study that has been recently done (otherwise you will receive a 0), so it may take some digging to find a suitable article. Some good sites to start looking for articles include:

  • New York Times Health – http://www.nytimes.com/pages/health/
  • NPR Health– http://www.npr.org/sections/health/
  • CNN Health – http://www.cnn.com/HEALTH/
  • The Washington Post Wellness– https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/wellness/?noredirect=on
  • Reuters Health – http://www.reuters.com/news/health
  • BBC News Health – https://www.bbc.com/news/health
  • ABC News Health – https://abcnews.go.com/Health/
  • NBC News Health– https://www.nbcnews.com/health

Don’t forget to provide a reference (including link) for your chosen article. 2 to 3 paragraphs in length,

How will community diversity issues be addressed? 

Part One: (See Attached Document, this has already been completed, just needs to be pieced together in final report) In the role of a health care manager, for the final project you will develop and write a comprehensive marketing and communication plan for your fictitious health care organization. The final project will be divided into four parts:

1.  Health Care Organization Profile (Due Module 2)

2.  Communication Plan

3.  Marketing Plan

4.  Community Collaboration Plan 

Start here —For Part 2 of the final project, you are to develop communication strategies and write a communication plan for your health care organization.

Part 2, the Communication Plan should include the following components:

1. Types of internal and external communication networks

2. Stakeholder analysis

3. Media methods

4. Tag lines, logos, photos, etc.

5. Letterhead, newsletters, etc.

For Part 3 of the final project, you are to conduct a market analysis for your health care organization and develop a marketing plan. The market analysis should address the following:

1. External environmental analysis

2. Internal environmental analysis

3. Strategic choice and strategic goals

4. SWOT analysis

5. How will marketing initiatives involve cross-functional team members?

6. How and when will marketing strategies be evaluated?

For Part 4 of the final project, you are to develop a community outreach plan for your health care organization. The community outreach plan should answer the following questions:

1. What methods will be used to engage the attention of and involve community members in the accomplishment of your organization’s goals?

2. How will community diversity issues be addressed?

This assignment uses a grading rubric. Instructors will be using the rubric to grade the assignment; therefore, students should review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the assignment criteria and expectations for successful completion of the assignment.

Word Count:Approximately 1200 words for Part 2 and 3, then part 4:  600 words. 3000 words total in Approximate for part two as Part one is already completed with the attached work that’ll be added.

Running Head: ORGANIZATION PROFILE 1

ORGANIZATION PROFILE 7

Final Project Part I: Health Care Organization Profile

Jennifer Coble

HCA-615

July 31, 2019

Name and type of Health Care Organization

Focus Health Care Centre is a community-based health care organization located in Tampa Bay, Florida, in the United States. As the name suggests, Focus Health Care Centre focuses on providing various health care services to improve the community health in Tampa Bay and Florida State as a whole. The organization was established in 2009. It is among the hospitals in Florida that have been at the forefront of promoting the health of individuals.

Mission, Vision, Goals

Focus Health Care Centre’s mission is to provide high-quality, accurate, and speedy health care services to clients through the integration of efficient technology and cooperation. Besides, the vision of this enterprise is to become the leading community-based health care provider in Florida State. Its goals include;

· To improve and protect the health of the community

· To provide relevant information to the community concerning their health

· To participate in the social and economic development of the community

· To promote preventive and primary care

Bed Number and Volume

The total number of beds at Focus Health Care Centre is 100, and they are spread in various wards within the facility. The small number of beds indicates the type of health care organization. Community-based hospitals usually have a small number of beds because most of them provide out-patient services that do not require patient admissions. The small area that these hospitals tend to serve also dictates the number of beds. Nevertheless, Focus Health Care Centre plans to increase its bed capacity as demand continues to grow. Besides, the hospital volume at Focus Health Care Centre is about three in every month. Nevertheless, patients with specific conditions get referrals to other advanced health care organizations because of the lack of specialty staff and experience at Focus Health Care Centre.

Type of Service Provided

Focus Health Care Centre provides a wide range of health care services including out-patient consultations, in-patient rehabilitation, specialties (dental services and child health), rehabilitation and therapy services, minor illness, minor injuries, maternity and sexual health services among others.

Quality Indicators

Quality is one of the critical aspects of health care because both the management and clients expect the organization to offer quality health care services (Lloyd, 2017). At Focus Health Care Centre, quality is the guiding principle in its provision of various services to the community. Some of the quality indicators at the hospital include;

· Waiting time- less than 30 minutes

· Number of repeat X-rays- not more than 10%

· Number of IPD admissions- not more than 10%

· Average length of stay

· Postponed surgeries

· Number of readmissions

Financial Performance Indicators

Although Focus Health Care Centre is a non-profit organization, financial management plays a vital role in the efficiency and effectiveness of service provision as well as the growth of the hospital. As such, having specific finance performance indicators enables the management to track its overall performance from the financial perspective. Some of the indicators that the organization uses include;

· Net profit margin

· Gross profit margin

· Working capital

· Current ratio

· Claims denial rate

· Average insurance claim processing

Human Resource Challenges

Despite being among the most recognizable health care organization for quality services, Focus Health Care Centre faces various HR challenges that hamper the provision of services. One of the primary HR issues affecting Focus Health Care Centre entails the nursing shortage. Similar to other health care organizations in the U.S., Focus Health Care Centre experiences a shortage of nurses which affects its operations adversely. The few available nurses are unable to meet the health needs of rising demand. According to numerous studies, the U.S. has a significant shortage of nurses, and the number is anticipated to grow in the next five years (Gottlieb, 2016). The reason for this issue has been related to the growing demand for health care and the aging of baby boomer nurses who are nearing retirement. Florida State is among the states that have been affected significantly by this crisis. As such, Focus Health Care Centre being in Tampa Bay, Florida makes it a victim of this staffing problem. It is a problem for the hospital to get adequate and qualified nurses.

The second human resource challenge that impacts the Focus Health Care Centre relates to managing diversity. The organization has employees from distinct backgrounds in its workforce which has posed some challenges in ensuring that the teamwork together without conflicts to achieve the set objectives (Cogin et al., 2016). For instance, getting employees from different cultural backgrounds to work together is a big concern. Thirdly, the hospital is also experiencing a problem of attracting top talents because of the lack of motivational working environments such as the availability of adequate training and development programs. Furthermore, Focus Health Care Centre also experience an HR challenge relating to adopting innovation. The hospital has limited financial capabilities which make it challenging to integrate the latest technologies such as big data analytics to improve quality of care (Cogin et al., 2016). Lastly, the organization has also a problem with maintaining the health and safety of employees. For instance; there are no programs to address the mental issues of workers which contribute to the high level of stress and other emotional disturbances that, in turn, affect their productivity.

Diversity Issues

Diversity in the workplace is vital because it creates a work environment that promotes teamwork, respect, and acceptance regardless of the differences in gender, age, race, sex, beliefs, and origin among others (Harvey & Allard, 2015). Today, the workplace is more diverse; however, problems have also risen from this situation that can impact an organization negatively. Focus Health Care Centre is a diverse organization, and one of the diversity issues in this hospital includes tension and miscommunication. Because employees are from different backgrounds (culture, and age), they tend to communicate differently such as those from the same backgrounds tend to take sides which, in turn, result in communication breakdowns and tension that lowers employees’ productivity.

The second issue relates to the inclusion of disabled workers. Focus Health Care Centre has about two disabled employees, and they tend to experience difficulties in how colleagues and managers perceive them. They also face accessibility challenges since the workplace has not accommodated all their needs. The last diversity issue in this hospital relates to resistance to change. A diverse workforce is likely to resist change because of different beliefs and perspectives (Harvey & Allard, 2015). This problem has been affecting Focus Health Care Centre on many occasions.

Community Population Statistics

Tampa Bay has a population of about 385, 000 people where the median age is 35 years. The male/female ratio is 0.9: 1, and about 43% of the population is married. About 74% speak English, and 19% are Spanish.

References

Cogin, J. A., Ng, J. L., & Lee, I. (2016). Controlling healthcare professionals: how human resource management influences job attitudes and operational efficiency. Human resources for health14(1), 55.

Gottlieb, L. N. (2016). Shortage of Nurses, Shortage of Nursing. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research Archive32(3).

Harvey, C. P., & Allard, M. (2015). Understanding and managing diversity: Readings, cases, and exercises. Pearson.

Lloyd, R. (2017). Quality health care: a guide to developing and using indicators. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Please read the article “Competitive strategies in the US theme park industry: a popular media perspective.”

Please read the article “Competitive strategies in the US theme park industry: a popular media perspective.”

Link to article (NID login required):  https://login.ezproxy.net.ucf.edu/login?auth=shibb&url=http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.net.ucf.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hjh&AN=108645905&site=eds-live&scope=site

Write a FORMAL discussion post answering ONE of the following questions:

1. The article states that “winning does not just mean surviving; it means leading.”  Describe what that means in the theme park and attraction industry today, including at least two examples of theme parks that have demonstrated this quality (with at least one example from a non-Disney or Universal park).2. The article also mentions “rivalry among existing competitors.”  How has rivalry shaped the theme park landscape in Florida?3. Pick any three of the eight theme park strategies listed in the article.  Next, identify theme parks that fit into each of those strategies (one theme park per strategy), and then compare and contrast them, looking at how each park uses its strategy to its advantage.

Write an INFORMAL (1-2 paragraph) discussion post about the following:

• What is one park you’ve never visit that you would really like to see someday?  What is it about that park that piques your interest?

Required elements (formal post only):

• Post a 1-2 paragraph response by the assignment due date.• Cite at least one outside source that adds relevant information to the response.• Use APA format, including in-text citations and references (the assigned article as well as outside sources need to be cited properly and included in your references).• Ask an open-ended question at the end of your response to promote discussion.

Required elements (informal post)

• Post a 1-2 paragraph information answer to the question/prompt given• Submit both your formal and informal posts in the same submission.

Replies:

• Reply to at least two students’ posts within 1 week from the assignment due date.• Replies must be substantial and contribute to the ongoing discussion.• Outside sources are not required in your replies, however if you do use an outside source you must cite it properly in APA format.

See rubric for grading details.  The rubric can be found by clicking on “show rubric” at the top right corner of this page.

80% of your grade for this assignment is based on your initial post, and 20% is based on your replies.  Late work is not accepted.  If your initial post is submitted after the webcourse due date, you will receive a zero for that portion of the grade.

Competitive strategies in the US theme park industry: a popular media perspective

Tayllor Lillestol, Dallen J. Timothy and Rebekka Goodman

Tayllor Lillestol, Dallen J. Timothy and Rebekka Goodman are all based at the School of Community Resources and Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.

Abstract Purpose – This paper aims to examine the competitive strategies employed by two of the largest theme park operators in Florida, based on a content analysis of popular media articles about theme park giants in the USA. It aims to provide a comparative examination of their competitive strategies, to develop a conceptual model of the same and to expand knowledge about current competitiveness in the theme park sector. Design/methodology/approach – This study used directed content analysis to identify and analyze strategies applied in the theme park sector as manifested in the mass media. Each database was searched using the following four key terms: competition, strategy, Disney and Universal Studios. Results were screened for relevance based on their inclusion of all four key terms. At the conclusion of the search, 87 articles from 34 US-based sources were amassed, varying in circulation size and published between 1985 and 2013. Each article was read, and sentences that suggested the use of a strategy were recorded. Although the intention was to leave each data point at a one-sentence maximum, occasionally, a second sentence was included for context and clarification. Each article was read twice to ensure the inclusion of all potential data points. Findings – The findings suggest that the largest US-based theme parks utilize strategies of value, uniqueness, niche markets, innovation, variety and quality as highlighted in the research literature. However, this study also confirms two additional competitive strategies that have heretofore not been examined in tourism studies – currency and convenience – as advantageous management and promotional mechanisms against their competitors. Research limitations/implications – Limitations to this research include a limited number of popular media articles available for analysis. This precluded a random sample of articles. In addition, the study was based on print media statements and keyword identification, which could also limit the generalizability of the findings. Nonetheless, it is believed that the case studies researched in this paper are indicative of many of the competitive strategies used by theme park managers throughout the world. Practical implications – The paper developed a competitive strategy model that has utility for them park planners and managers, as they attempt to understand the competitive advantages and those of their direct competitors. The findings in this study have broader implications for other theme parks throughout the world. Social implications – The social implications of this study are manifold. They include the notion that theme park attendees manifest certain behaviors and seek out certain experiences as they make decisions on which parks to attend. The notions of value, uniqueness, niche markets, innovation, variety, quality, currency and convenience all reveal how some consumers determine their choice of venue for recreational travel. Originality/value – This paper provides an original research of the theme park sector by examining two of the USA’s largest theme park giants and the strategies they use in a comparative and competitive manner to attraction clientele and maintain visitation. In particular, the paper develops a conceptual model based upon the review of strategies literature and, then, tests it and modifies it based on the findings of the study.

Keywords USA, Universal, Content analysis, Disney, Theme parks, Competitive strategies

Paper type Research paper

Introduction

The purpose of this study is to provide a model of strategies employed in the theme park industry, which does not currently exist in academic research. This purpose is

Received 17 February 2015 Revised 14 May 2015 Accepted 18 June 2015

DOI 10.1108/IJCTHR-02-2015-0009 VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015, pp. 225-240, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1750-6182 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 225

accomplished by synthesizing current academic knowledge on strategy from both a tourism perspective and a business perspective. This knowledge is then combined with conclusions from a content analysis of articles written about two of today’s largest theme park companies in the USA. The model developed by this study provides a foundation for further academic research to analyze the life of the theme park sector or to transfer strategies from the theme park sector and apply them to other industries.

The theme park sector is different from traditional tourism outlets because it exists in a human-created, artificial environment, yet it is an increasingly competitive and attractive sector (Clavé, 2007; King, 1981; Mayer, 2002; Milman, 2010, Yildirim, 2011). The theme park sector represents a major component of the tourism industry in the USA (Liu, 2008). In 1985, more than 30 American amusement parks received more than one million visitors per year. By 2010, approximately 290 million people visited these parks, and by 2012, more than 400 amusement parks and related attractions operated in the USA (International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions, 2015). Despite the growth of the amusement park industry, including an increased number of theme parks, research is lacking on the topic of specific strategies used by theme parks to attract customers.

Central Florida is now the world’s unofficial “theme park capital”, with dozens of competing parks and attractions (Braun et al., 1992). Of the top 25 amusement parks and theme parks worldwide, the highest concentration is in Florida, with seven parks (Rubin, 2014). Disney theme parks dominate the sector by virtue of size and diversity, although many others are now viable competitors. Success and attention caused the expansion of attractions already in the area and brought in new parks, resulting in the amusement-based tourism economy in Florida today (Braun et al., 1992; Milman and Dickson, 2014). Of the top 25 amusement parks and theme parks worldwide, Walt Disney World and Universal Orlando, both in Central Florida, are the top two competitors in the USA based on total guest attendance (Rubin, 2014). Walt Disney World’s Magic Kingdom saw 18,588,000 visitors in 2013, and Islands of Adventure Park at Universal Orlando saw 8,141,000. For this reason and the example set by their competitive relationship, Walt Disney World and Universal Orlando are the primary focus of this study.

Competition and strategy

Competitiveness has no single academic definition. Porter (1980) notes that competition in the broader sense should be termed extended rivalry. Competition is dynamic and rests on innovation and the search for strategic differences (Porter, 1998). Competition helps companies strive strategically for higher-quality products and services for long-term profitability (Crouch and Ritchie, 1999). A destination is competitive if it can attract and satisfy potential tourists, and a wide range of tourism- and business-related factors determine competitiveness (Enright and Newton, 2004). No matter what the definition, competition exists between players in a region or industry and requires an advantage over competitors (Font et al., 2006; Gooroochurn and Sugiyarto, 2005; Porter, 1980). Competition between service providers includes jockeying for position, for which companies use price, advertising and customer service to compete (Porter, 1980). Companies feel the effects of each other’s moves and are prone to react to them, using a variety of methods to achieve their goal. Porter (2008, p. 25) elaborates on his “five competitive forces that shape strategy” to determine how competitive an industry is and in what specific areas. Porter’s final concept, rivalry among existing competitors, is the most closely examined in this study.

Tourism companies put consumers first to compete as leaders in quality with radical innovations that strengthen the firm’s strategic position (Poon, 1993). A theme park’s unique set of resources and competencies create a sustained competitive advantage when others cannot imitate them (Haugland et al., 2011). According to Fuchs (2004), successful tourism destinations now have to consider customer satisfaction as the most important source of competitive advantage. Dissatisfaction can easily damage the competitiveness

PAGE 226 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015

of a service provider (Buhalis, 2000). Competitiveness is a key element to study as the theme park sector continues to grow and change (Enright and Newton, 2004). In today’s competitive business environment, winning does not just mean surviving; it means leading (Poon, 1993). The competitiveness of tourism destinations and attractions gained more focus in academic research addressing tourism and the theme park sector in recent years with increased focus on competition (Gooroochurn and Sugiyarto, 2005).

Research on competitiveness is often done in a vacuum, in which an industry is assessed without appropriate context (Enright and Newton, 2004). According to Gomezelj and Mihalič (2008), there is a strong need to identify and explore competitive advantages and disadvantages, and to analyze the actual competitive position of the players in an industry. Many of the structural approaches to competitiveness from the 1990s are obsolete in today’s world (Løwendahl and Revang, 1998). According to Løwendahl and Revang (1998), researchers need to assess the applicability of existing theories and openly discuss their relevance and limits in a new light.

Strategy is the means to achieve a competitive advantage in any industry. Strategy is fluid and responds to changes in the rules of competition and competitors (Fleisher and Bensoussan, 2003). Porter (1996, 2008) views strategy as building defenses against competitive forces or finding a position in the industry where the forces are weakest. Grant (1991) argues that strategy is the match an organization makes between its internal resources and skills, and the opportunities and risks created by its external environment. Generally, strategy is a position a company consciously decides to take. Strategy depends critically on a subtle understanding of the industry of which it is a part and the competitors it faces (Porter, 1980). As mentioned previously, Porter (2008, pp. 26-33) defines five competitive forces that shape strategy; one of these forces is “rivalry among existing competitors”, which includes ways a company may try to outdo another, by means of price discounting, new product introductions, service improvements or any other means. Rivalry is a primary consideration to understand specific strategies in the theme park sector.

Strategy in the theme park sector

Traditional tourism was standardized and rigid, requiring travel agencies and other intermediaries to find packages and information for consumers to buy and use (Poon, 1989, p. 91). Flexibility, niche marketing and diagonal integration characterize contemporary tourism, which create new possibilities for strategy building in tourism. The theme park sector itself underwent major structural changes over the past few decades that impact strategy as well. Braun and Soskin (1998) acknowledge substantial changes in industry structure and in the market environment led to an observable alteration of theme parks. “As the theme park sector continues to mature, so too will its strategies evolve” (Braun and Soskin, 1999, p. 442).

Based on a synthesis of strategies research from the past 35 years, a model was developed for this paper to understand better the complexity of strategy in the theme park sector. In the model, six separate and distinct strategies emerge (Figure 1). For the sake of this study, it is understood that each strategy is exclusive of all others, per the definitions listed hereafter, although multiple strategies can and should be employed at the same time to achieve a competitive advantage. These strategies are the framework against which data collected from the media are compared to establish relevant strategies in the theme park sector.

The first strategy is value, meaning a company provides a product or service at a lower cost than its competitors. Porter (1980) captures this idea as an overall cost leadership strategy, when a company tries to be cheaper than others. Porter (1996) later uses this same theme in his variety-based positioning strategy, which requires a company to focus only on a subset of a customer’s needs to fulfill that specific need better than its competitors can. This concept is also labeled the category or tangible resource management strategy or the

VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 227

distribution strategy, which sees price as the central element of success (Claver-Cortés et al., 2007).

The value strategy is common in tourism. Tourism providers between the 1960s and 1980s focused on price and selling cheap destinations (Font et al., 2006). Gilbert (1990) explores this value concept in his commodity areas theory or locations tourists view as being good deals. For leisure travelers, price is an important key element in the decision-making process (Buhalis, 2000). Braun and Milman (1994) allude to theme parks when they note that repeat travelers to Central Florida are more likely to try different leisure experiences on their return visits.

The second strategy is uniqueness, wherein a company provides something others do not, so customers will choose the unique product first. This is also known as differentiation and can be a purposive strategy a company uses to become unique in the industry (Poon, 1993; Porter, 1980, 1996; Prideaux, 2002). Gilbert’s (1990) status areas theory complement Porter’s ideas, suggesting that success can exist because of a unique product or service. Service organizations can achieve a competitive advantage with a unique product (Pine and Gilmore, 1999).

The third strategy is catering to a niche, wherein a company fills a specific existing need for a subset of people. Porter (1980) identifies this concept in his focus strategy, when a company picks one area to specialize in. Porter (1996) again restates this concept in his needs-based positioning strategy, stating that companies tailor to fit the needs of a specific subset of people. His ideas about access-based positioning also relate to the niche strategy, with a specific group of people based on geography or scale. Claver-Cortés et al. (2007) also develop a specialization and intangible resource management strategy that includes this idea, emphasizing segmentation for a competitive advantage.

Theme parks commonly catered to niches in the past. To attract more visitors, theme parks offer more options tailored to specific segments of their target market (McClung, 1991). For example, many modern theme parks are trying to cater to the young adult niche with thrill rides geared toward that group. Destination theme parks that specialize generally have a better chance of achieving their strategies (Buhalis, 2000).

The fourth strategy is innovation, marked by technological improvements. Poon (1989) suggests that sustained innovation exists to pique tourists’ interest as a flexible specialization strategy. Industry innovation is critical for theme parks, including the use of new technology to customize products for consumers (Claver-Cortés et al., 2007; Fyall et al., 2008; Poon, 1989).

Figure 1 Modern strategies in the theme park industry

PAGE 228 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015

To attract repeat business, theme parks convince potential guests that previous visits are inferior to new experiences and improved parks, a notion theme parks often subscribe to (Braun and Soskin, 1999). In 2011, the construction of new rides and the renovation of existing rides was the largest capital investment by theme parks (Clavé, 2007; Yildirim, 2011). For profitable growth, companies strive for new sources of innovation and creativity (Chang et al., 2014; Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004).

The fifth strategy is variety, wherein a company provides as many options as possible to satisfy everyone. Poon (1989) describes this strategy as taking on cluster segments, when a company works to cater to every segment in a group with different needs. Flexibility is the main goal and is required in tourism to create competitive advantages (Fyall et al., 2008; Hutcheon, 2013; Kemperman et al., 2000; Milman, 2009; Poon, 1989). Theme parks supported the idea of variety for years with new parks, new sections and new themes that provide additional options. Braun and Milman (1994) agree that individuals want to visit a particular park to satisfy all members of their travel party. The transformation to greater variety is a key feature of the modern tourism market (Poon, 1993). In fact, Formica and Olsen (1998) say that the majority of the parks under construction are conceived as multi-purpose entertainment centers with options.

The final strategy is quality. Tourism and recreation consumers are increasingly more sophisticated and sensitive to quality (Augustyn and Ho, 1998; Kandampully, 2000; Milman, 2009). According to LeBoeuf (1987), businesses spend six times more money trying to get new customers with quality products and services. Contemporary tourists are more experienced, more quality-conscious and harder to please (Kandampully, 2000; Milman, 2009; Poon, 1993). Clavé (2007) notes that one major factor of success among top theme parks is high-quality products and services. Consumers mold their expectations and perceptions of service based on reliability, honesty, trustworthiness, competence and courtesy (Fyall et al., 2008; Mayer, 2002; Parasuraman et al., 1990). Considering the importance of quality, tour operators must focus on improved service as a way to increase customer satisfaction and improve a company’s performance (Font et al., 2006).

Together, these six strategies, or principles, form the conceptual framework against which this study assesses the strategies of two major theme park companies in the USA as they appear in the mass media. There is still no comprehensive source of information on the practical application of strategy in the theme park sector; this paper, therefore, aims to fill this gap.

Research methods

This study uses directed content analysis to identify and analyze strategies applied in the theme park sector as manifested in the mass media, similar to the work of Barringer et al. (2005), who quantitatively examined the content of the narratives of rapid-growth firms, including Disney. Content analysis gives researchers the ability to sift through large volumes of information systematically and derive useful data on a wide range of topics (Stepchenkova, 2012). Directed content analysis allows the use of prior research to form initial categories before sorting through texts. Directed content analysis is most useful when there is already knowledge and prior research on a topic, although incomplete (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005). The content analysis in this study was conducted by a single researcher and verified by a second person.

Academic research compiled for the literature review about theme parks, competition and strategy was reviewed for patterns in strategy theology to form six preliminary categories to be scrutinized further after content analysis of the collected mass media articles. As previously noted, the identified strategies were value, uniqueness, niche, innovation, variety and quality (Figure 1).

To find media sources, an initial search was conducted for relevant articles from newspapers, magazines and online publications produced in the USA. Sources include

VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 229

LexisNexis Academic, Academic Search Premier and NewsBank Full-Text Newspapers databases. LexisNexis Academic provides a range of newspapers and trade publications, and NewsBank provides access to more than 170 major US-based newspapers. Academic Search Premier provides additional sources, including magazines.

Each database was searched using the following four key terms: competition, strategy, Disney and Universal Studios. Results were screened for relevance based on their inclusion of all four key terms. At the conclusion of the search, 87 articles from 34 US-based sources were amassed, varying in circulation size and published between 1985 and 2013.

Each article was read, and sentences that suggested the use of a strategy were recorded. Although the intention was to leave each data point at a one-sentence maximum, occasionally, a second sentence was included for context and clarification. Each article was read twice to ensure the inclusion of all potential data points. Every source had the potential to provide multiple strategies, although sentences within each source that suggested the same strategy were only counted once, on their first appearance. In this way, several strategies could be recorded in any given source, but the same strategy could not be recorded more than once in each source.

One-word descriptions of each data point were identified. Any descriptions that closely matched the preliminary categories were noted as such. The remaining data that did not fit the preliminary categories were placed in a new category. This was done until every data point fit into an exclusive category. The new categories evolved as the research progressed, until the best one-word description was identified.

To identify the appropriate strategy for each data point, each article was read for an understanding of its overall theme, and then, specific sections that suggested a particular strategy were highlighted and narrowed down to the most applicable sentence. If a sentence was difficult to narrow down to only one strategy, the sentences around it were used for context to determine the best descriptor for the data point.

At the conclusion of the data screening, 225 data points were identified. In addition to the six strategies originally derived from the academic literature, two more themes were discovered from the data: currency and convenience. Currency refers to theme parks providing guests with experiences that are culturally relevant at the time and modern in the theme itself (e.g. creating a ride from a new movie). Convenience is demonstrated when a park creates a more accessible environment for a single visitor or an entire group. Both of these new strategies appeared frequently in the data. However, even with the new categories, the list is not exhaustive. These new concepts were identified because of repetition, which might not be obvious for other potential strategies. With the addition of these two new categories, eight strategies were identified in the theme park sector: value, uniqueness, niche, innovation, variety, quality, currency and convenience (Figure 2).

Analysis and discussion

Each data point was placed in a category fitting one of the identified strategies and then quantified for further analysis. After being recorded electronically in Microsoft Excel, the data were analyzed further through the use of available functions, such as pivot tables, to discover significant trends in frequency.

The analysis indicated variety and currency were the two most frequent strategies used in the theme park sector between 1985 and 2013 as described in newspapers and magazines. Variety existed in 19.56 per cent of the data and currency in 19.11 per cent of the data. The next most common strategies were uniqueness (15.56 per cent) and innovation (13.33). Niche existed in 9.33 per cent of the data, and convenience and value both existed in 8.89 per cent. Surprisingly, quality was the least mentioned strategy, with only 5.33 per cent of all recorded data points.

PAGE 230 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015

Variety

As noted, the most frequent strategy was providing variety. This strategy was mentioned 44 times between 1987 and 2012, with nearly one-third of those mentions taking place in the year 1999 alone. Of the 34 data sources, 23 of them specifically mention variety. Variety appears early and consistently in the data. A 1988 Los Angeles Times article titled “A Rivalry of Titanic Proportions” notes that:

The big question is whether anyone, including MCA, can compete with the tourist wallop wielding by Disney World, which includes the Magic Kingdom, Epcot Center and a host of new attractions opening along with the studio tour, including Typhoon Lagoon, billed as the world’s largest water park, and Pleasure Island, a nighttime entertainment center.

Twenty-one years later, a 2010 article in The Tribune notes that:

When Universal Studios opened the second of its big attractions [. . .] it hoped that by jamming super-scary roller coasters, Jurassic Park, Spider-Man and Dr Seuss into one fun park, it would at last pose formidable competition to Walt Disney World.

The direct competition between Universal Studios and Walt Disney World is mentioned often in the variety category. At least a dozen statements directly compare the two parks in terms of variety. The number might double or triple if the sentences surrounding the data points were consistently included for further context. On the other hand, objective statements regarding variety show up in only a handful of data points. The Orlando Sentinel states “Size, though, will not matter to people who pay to get inside the attractions, because of the variety of activities inside the parks”.

Many allusions to variety align specifically with expansion projects. For example, in 1999, the New York Post notes that:

[. . .] linking the two parks is CityWalk, Universal’s answer to Downtown Disney and Pleasure Island, with restaurants, shops, movie theaters, bars and clubs, and the live venue at the largest-ever Hard Rock Cafe.

That same year, a Newsweek article notes, “Islands of Adventure includes a $600 million deluxe hotel [. . .] and a CityWalk of restaurants and nightclubs”. Every expansion project is directly linked to the element of variety.

The data for this strategy were also unique because it manifested in the form of extensive lists. In several instances, variety stood out from the rest of the text because

Figure 2 Content analysis results by strategy

VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 231

long lists denoted it. For example, in a 1999 article, the Houston Chronicle described the following:

The Disney World Resort encompasses four theme parks: the Magic Kingdom, Disney’s Animal Kingdom, Epcot and MGM-Disney Studios; three water parks; the Disney Institute; Downtown Disney, a retail and entertainment district; 17 hotels, five golf courses, a racquet club; and two mini-golf complexes.

Previous academic research identified variety as a top strategy in the theme park sector because it allows a company to serve different theme park markets better. Although some sectors of tourism might attract select personality types, theme parks appeal to many personalities, all seeking something slightly different from their previous experience. Researchers textually support the existence of variety as a strategy in many instances (Braun and Milman, 1994; Formica and Olsen, 1998; Fyall et al., 2008; Hutcheon, 2013; Kemperman et al., 2000; Milman, 2009; Poon, 1989, 1993).

Currency

Currency exists in 19.11 per cent of the data, 43 times in 24 publications between 1987 and 2012. More than a fourth of those mentioned took place in 1990, when Walt Disney World and Universal Studios were opening or planning to open their rival movie studio theme parks.

The theme of Hollywood glamour and popular movies shows up repeatedly as a strategy. A 2002 Newsweek article, “The Battle for Orlando”, states: “two of this year’s box office smashes, ‘Spider-Man’ and ‘Men in Black II’ have Universal rides.” In 2004, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution highlighted the opening of the new Shrek ride. In 1989, the Deseret News noted several E.T. ads were noticeable because “they are endorsed by a familiar face, one that kids of all ages fondly recognize”.

In selecting a theme for future development, it makes sense for a theme park to choose elements familiar to the general public. By doing this, the theme park extends the experience off the big screen. Within the currency strategy, movies and characters spanned all genres and age groups. In this way, the variety and currency strategies align to make a heavier impact. In a 1990 article, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch notes the following:

It’s shaping up as the kind of spectacular that only Hollywood could dream up and pull off: Jaws, E.T., King Kong and the Ghostbusters join forces against Indiana Jones, Roger Rabbit, Mary Poppins and the Ewoks.

Although researchers stress the importance of developing new concepts to keep theme park visitors interested, there is no established academic base that specifically addresses providing new elements that are culturally relevant. It is unclear whether this is an overlooked concept in the academic literature or simply a common assumption.

Uniqueness

Uniqueness existed in 15.56 per cent of the data. This category showed up more consistently from year to year than all other identified strategies. It was absent in only seven years of data. In contrast, the two most common strategies, currency and variety, were absent in eight and nine years of data, respectively. Like variety, uniqueness appeared the most in 1999.

Of all the categories noted in this study, uniqueness refers the most to “Disney magic”, which itself is a unique concept. It is often noted that Disney capitalizes on uniqueness to keep visitors coming back year after year. Entertainment Weekly in 1990 notes: “like lots of the estimated 23 million visitors to Disney World each year, we arrived yearning for the warmth and spectacle that distinguish Walt Disney’s creations”. Disney is a strong contender in the uniqueness category, as far as the media assessment is concerned.

PAGE 232 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015

However, Universal is unique in many ways as well. Most notably, Universal does not adhere to the squeaky-clean image characteristic of the Disney theme parks. “Universal tries to differentiate itself from Disney-MGM by using ‘aggressive, in-your-face marketing’ that focuses on the ‘unique, one-of-a-kind properties that we offer’, one Marketing News article states. In particular, media articles reference Universal’s proclivity toward claiming Halloween as its holiday because it has an image different from Disney. In 2000, the Wall Street Journal notes: “The type of Halloween that’s popular in the parks today is off-limits to Disney”. Of the strategies identified in the academic literature, uniqueness is also the only one that deals with the holiday season. Both companies devote a great deal of effort to a single holiday. According to the popular media, Disney has a weak presence at Halloween, and Universal’s coverage of Christmas does not match Disney’s.

Many academic sources allude to being unique in business and in tourism. Being different is seen as a way to achieve a competitive advantage in tourism because tourists are increasingly looking for something to surprise them and capture their attention (Fyall et al., 2008; Hutcheon, 2013; Pine and Gilmore, 1999; Poon, 1993). Using the holidays as a marketing tool to enhance the parks’ uniqueness was an unexpected research outcome.

In the theme park sector, being unique has much to do with creating an image for the theme park itself. Rather than focusing primarily on generating unique rides, the mass media emphasizes more intangible ways in which the parks can create a sense of uniqueness.

Innovation

As a strategy, innovation is an ongoing process necessary for the survival of theme parks. It existed in 13.33 per cent of all data collected, or 30 of the 225 statements. A third of those instances also took place in 1999, and another third took place after the year 2000. Generally speaking, this strategy showed up more often when new rides/attractions were opened at Walt Disney World or Universal Studios.

When it came to describing innovation in theme parks, the media often used sensationalism to capture the audience’s attention. In 1990, Entertainment Weekly described a new ride at Universal Studios as follows: “inside a pitch-black theater, where millions of dollars’ worth of special effects will soon explode”. New attractions are sometimes accompanied by an explanation of their large price tags. In 1999, a Los Angeles Times article describes Universal Studios’ new park, saying the following:

A weathered lighthouse marks the entry to Florida’s newest theme park, but just beyond, a fiercer icon looms: the Hulk Coaster, which blasts riders from 0 to 40 mph in two seconds before turning them upside-down in a zero-gravity loop.

The data illustrating this strategy almost always describe some variation of “new” and puts a distasteful emphasis on the “old”. In 2004, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution observed, “the Hulk doesn’t do that old click-click-click uphill pull to get started like other coasters”. In a 2000 article from The Times, the concept is well illustrated: “Bigger bangs, zappier zaps, loopier loops, and really real virtual reality” are now the ultimate goal for Central Florida’s major theme parks, which are always looking for the next “wow”. Innovation is time-sensitive because it requires the development and implementation of technology ahead of competitors.

Niche

Niche was not a dominant strategy in the mass media. The strategy only appears 21 times in the 225 statements collected, 9.33 per cent of the results. Like many other strategies, it exists most frequently in 1999, with four times as many results than during other years. Other than quality, providing for a niche was the least stratified; it did not appear in 13 years of the collected data. The niche being served by theme parks was almost always noted as teenagers and young adults.

VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 233

Of all the strategies used by theme parks, providing for a niche seemed to favor one company over the other. The statement almost always referred to Universal Studios capturing the young adult market or conversely failing to capture the family market. In 1999, Newsweek notes: “the park is Universal’s $2.7 billion gamble that it can attract older thrill-seeking kids”. That same year, The Charlotte Observer notes: “Universal Florida has scored high marks from teens and young adults over the past 10 years”.

Most allusions to Walt Disney World are about its lack of appeal for teenagers and its capture of the family market. In 1990, Newsweek notes: “the sole chink in Disney’s armor, some industry analysts says, is that its parks don’t appeal strongly to teenagers”. The same year the USA News & World Report notes: “the Disney-MGM park clearly emphasizes fun over fright and is perhaps better suited for young children”. Nine years later, a source in The Denver Post perceived that “Disney owns early childhood”. Kids are a strength for Walt Disney World, a fact clearly noted in the popular media outlets observed in this study.

For the most part, media polarized the two companies. If one theme park lacked something, the competitor filled the gap. That is probably why the two companies seem to have successfully co-existed for so long – they are so different. More recently, however, the two parties fought over a niche market. In 2004, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution notes: “these days, Disney and Universal are locked in an escalating competition, and it’s all about pushing new, fantastically expensive and elaborate rides aimed at adrenaline junkies”.

Other than thrill-seekers and children, several other niche markets turn up periodically in the data. Most controversial was the offering of services for upper-class consumers. In 2003, the USA News & World Report notes: “then there’s the VIP tour, you just have to ask (and pay)”. Both Universal Studios and Walt Disney World now provide services for their more affluent clientele, a strategy that is more visible in the media in recent years.

Of all the strategies examined here, this one most closely related to quality, and the two were often paired together. For this reason, luxury was often found as a potential strategy. The reason it did not become a recognized category is because statements about the upper class nearly always referred to either a niche focus or a quality focus. Also, where other strategies highlighted the parks’ extreme renovation or development budgets, niche was only mentioned once.

Convenience

Convenience appeared 20 times in the mass media analyzed, or 8.89 per cent of all the statements collected. The most common year for convenience was in 1999, although overall, it appeared more frequently after the year 1999. Half of the statements collected were from 2000 to 2008, and that proportion jumped to 75 per cent if 1999 is included. Convenience was the only strategy of the eight that was most present in the twenty-first century.

Saving time was the primary convenience-related theme. It ranged from spending less time waiting in lines to being able to move between theme parks quickly. Transportation was the most common focus related to saving time. In 1999, the New York Times suggested: “[Universal Studio’s] compactness – the three sections are an easy walk from one another [. . .] – is an advantage for those with limited time”. In 1990, the USA News & World Report claimed:

Disney is making it highly attractive to stay on Disney property and visit only its attractions. Frequent shuttle service runs tourists from Disney’s 15 on-site hotels [. . .] to the Disney-MGM park, for instance.

Building quicker ways to get around town was a strategy for both theme parks consistently. One of the earliest mentions was in 1990 from the Fort Worth Star-Telegram noting the following:

[. . .] the Starway is a planned 900-foot-long, light-bedecked moving walkway designed to scoop up park visitors at the top of the mammoth Universal City hill and gently whisk them to the valley below.

PAGE 234 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015

There were few mentions of waiting in theme park lines, a common concern for theme parks. In 2000, a New York Times article notes the following:

[. . .] guests who stay at one of the two hotels on the ground of Universal Orlando [. . .] now step right in any time the parks are open – and not have to wait.

In the convenience category, short lines were mentioned only four times, all in the twenty-first century.

Value

Value did not show up as a primary concern for theme parks in the mass media. This could be because theme parks are normally a vacation destination, and therefore, people have already committed to spending large sums of money for the experience. Value appeared only 20 times out of the 225 collected statements, matching convenience in frequency. However, value was more stratified than convenience and niche strategies. Value was not evident until the 1990s.

Nearly every reference to value by either Walt Disney World or Universal Studios was in the form of discounted tickets or ticket packages. Most interesting were the references that indicated pricing models designed to make guests think they were getting more value. In 2013, Time Magazine notes: “the point of such a pricing structure is to make the multi-day passes look like bargains, relatively speaking, compared to the rip-off that is the single-day ticket”. According to the Los Angeles Times in 1990:

[. . .] tourists [. . .] tend to buy the passes because at $102 apiece they’re a better deal than the $31 it would cost to enter any one of the facility’s parks for just one day.

Both companies used this strategy to bring in more guests for longer periods of time.

Over the years, there was an observable trend of the parks offering longer packages to sustain their competitive advantages, thus, continuing the value strategy into the twenty-first century. In 1990, the USA News & World Report notes the following:

[. . .] by eliminating its popular $80 three-day pass in favor of four- and five-day admission tickets that costs $100 and $117 respectively per adult, Disney recently made it more expensive for tourists to spend a day elsewhere.

Thirteen years later, the Orlando Sentinel notes: “Walt Disney World [. . .] will offer a seven-day package for the price of four as it tries to bring back tourists who have stayed away because of war worries”.

Providing value has been described for decades in business and tourism research (Buhalis, 2000; Porter, 1980), and it was the first strategy identified in this study. Value is also the only strategy with direct references to the Florida theme park sector in the academic literature (Braun and Milman, 1994).

Quality

The least mentioned strategy for the theme park sector was quality. It appeared only 12 times, or 5.33 per cent of the data collected. Quality existed in only six years of the mass media: 1989, 1990, 1996, 1999, 2003 and 2008. It appeared most frequently in 1990.

Most of the data in this category focused on providing quality lodging. Luxury is commonly mentioned to attract new clientele. In 1990, Entertainment Weekly highlighted a guest’s experiences to illustrate the quality of theme park accommodations:

But once we got there, the sheer beauty of it all – lovely combinations of the grand and the grandiose, the intimidating and the user-friendly, the overdone and the just right – was tremendously energizing.

VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 235

Disney and Universal acknowledge directly that quality is important in their business. In 1989, the St. Petersburg Times notes: “history has proved the quality present is what the public wants”. Nearly 20 years later, the Orlando Sentinel notes: “both Universal and Disney insist that the immersion of customers into a good story, not the latest technology, must remain the foundation of their attractions”.

Whether or not the media acknowledges the importance of quality as frequently as other strategies, the academic community speaks frequently about its relevance (Augustyn and Ho, 1998; Fyall et al., 2008; Kandampully, 2000; LeBoeuf, 1987; Mayer, 2002; Parasuraman et al., 1990; Porter, 1980). According to Augustyn and Ho (1998), customers are becoming increasingly more sensitive to quality, so it stands to reason theme parks must consider quality an important strategy.

Conclusions

Despite the history of theme parks as important sources of entertainment in Western societies, there is a lack of research on the strategies used to attract new guest and entice repeat customers. Academic studies identified strategies used extensively in business and in tourism, but a rare few address theme parks or amusement parks directly. This study fills the gap with a model of the specific strategies used in the theme park sector, analyzing strategies for further context and understanding.

A thorough review of the academic literature revealed six strategies in the theme park sector: value, uniqueness, niche, innovation, variety and quality. These strategies were defined in the context of theme parks to form mutually exclusive categories for further investigation through the use of directed content analysis. At the conclusion of the study, and based upon the content of the media reviews, two new categories were identified: currency and convenience. These two strategies fit well into a theme park’s goal of providing enjoyable experiences, although these two strategies had not been described in the research literature to date. Based on the results of the content analysis, there are at least eight specific strategies applicable to the theme park sector today (Figure 3).

In order from most frequent to least frequent, the strategies are as follows: variety, currency, uniqueness, innovation, niche, convenience, value and quality. This rank order suggests that theme parks are likely more focused on providing variety by serving as many members of a visiting party as possible, all in one place. Quality was the least mentioned strategy, possibly because it is an assumed attribute for both Walt Disney World and Universal

Figure 3 Revised modern strategies of the theme park industry

PAGE 236 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015

Studios through their established brands. Another possible explanation is that the articles simply did not emphasize quality because reporters either chose to cover details that were timelier and, therefore, more reportable or the publications reflected the values their customers prioritized. Together, these eight identified strategies form the foundation for this study’s framework.

Research suggests that each strategy was recognized by the media since at least the late 1980s, although some appeared more frequently in the data over time than others. It is difficult to speculate the precise arrival, or disappearance, of each strategy due to the uneven spread of articles chronologically.

The most common strategy changes from year to year, often ending in a two-, three- or four-way tie. The two years that ended with a decisive leader in strategy were 1990 and 1999. In 1990, the strategy of currency spiked to double its average frequency in the data, primarily because of the development of movie theme parks by both Walt Disney World and Universal Studios. In 1999, variety appeared the most as each company developed new theme parks, water parks and shopping areas. That year also resulted in the primary concentration of the niche strategy. Universal Studios attempted to appeal to teenagers and young adults during that time, building bigger and faster thrill rides that were unmatched in the Orlando area. Occasional spikes in the data, like those suggested above, correlated with new developments from either company.

As theme parks continue to grow and diversify in the USA, and around the world, it is important for professionals in tourism to understand the sector’s progression. The growth of the theme park sector in recent years suggests that a relevant understanding of the strategy is necessary. Knowing the strategies that theme parks used over the past few decades allows stakeholder organizations to examine the current and future needs of the sector. This research also has the potential to help those stakeholders prepare and adapt to necessary changes in strategy that could happen in the future.

The model developed by this study can also be evaluated for use in other sectors of the tourism industry in need of revitalization. Considering the financial success and rapid expansion of the theme park sector, the strategies identified in this study could be useful to adapt and apply elsewhere in an attempt to bring success to other sectors of the tourism industry. With further research, this model can be used to understand the formula for theme park success and potentially bring measured success to other locations.

However, it is important to note several limitations present in this study. The application of directed content analysis means important strategies could have been overlooked. Repetition sorted out the most frequent strategies as discussed in the mass media, but there are other strategies that could be absent in this research. The focus on Walt Disney World and Universal Studios also leads to exclusion of strategies possibly unique in the tension of other competitors in the theme park industry and in the tourism industry, especially considering the two companies analyzed dominate the theme park industry. Competition among smaller theme parks or international theme parks could lead to a different result. Market conditions are a strong influencer in this study. The mass media is also subjective in its inclusion of information, dependent on the interests of its readers, which creates a narrow view of the competition happening between the theme parks.

This study synthesizes previous research on competition and strategy in business, tourism and the theme park sector in Florida, USA, in its literature review. It provides a detailed source of information that draws together multiple fields of interest in a new light. By combining previous knowledge and adding new research, this study provides a framework that can be used in future studies. New strategies were discovered that may apply specifically to the theme park sector, which are not well-understood to date.

VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 237

References

International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (2015), “Amusement park and attractions industry statistics”, available at: www.iaapa.org/resources/by-park-type/amusement-parks- and-attractions/industry-statistics (accessed 22 July 2015).

Augustyn, M. and Ho, S.K. (1998), “Service quality and tourism”, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 37 No. 1, pp. 71-75.

Barringer, B.R., Jones, F.F. and Neubaum, D.O. (2005), “A quantitative content analysis of the characteristics of rapid-growth firms and their founders”, Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 20 No. 5, pp. 663-687.

Braun, B.M. and Milman, A. (1994), “Demand relations in the central Florida theme park industry”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 150-153.

Braun, B.M. and Soskin, M.D. (1999), “Theme park competitive strategies”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 438-442.

Braun, B.M., Soskin, M.D. and Cernicky, M. (1992), “Central Florida theme park pricing: following the mouse”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 131-136.

Buhalis, D. (2000), “Marketing the competitive destination of the future”, Tourism Management, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 97-116.

Chang, C., Shu, S. and King, B. (2014), “Novelty in theme park physical surroundings: an application of the stimulus-organism-response paradigm”, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 19 No. 6, pp. 680-699.

Clavé, S.A. (2007), The Global Theme Park Industry, CAB International, Wallingford.

Claver-Cortés, E., Molina-Azorín, J.F. and Pereira-Moliner, J. (2007), “Competitiveness in mass tourism”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 34 No. 3, pp. 727-745.

Crouch, G.I. and Ritchie, J.R. (1999), “Tourism, competitiveness and societal prosperity”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 44 No. 3, pp. 137-152.

Enright, M.J. and Newton, J. (2004), “Tourism destination competitiveness: a quantitative approach”, Tourism Management, Vol. 25 No. 6, pp. 777-788.

Fleisher, C.S. and Bensoussan, B.E. (2003), Strategic and Competitive Analysis: Methods and Techniques for Analyzing Business Competition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Font, X., Tapper, R. and Cochrane, J. (2006), “Competitive strategy in a global industry: tourism”, Handbook of Business Strategy, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 51-55.

Formica, S. and Olsen, M.D. (1998), “Trends in the amusement park industry”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 10 No. 7, pp. 297-308.

Fuchs, M. (2004), “Strategy development in tourism destinations: a DEA approach”, Poznan University Economics Review, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 52-73.

Fyall, A., Garrod, B., Leask, A. and Wanhill, S. (2008), Managing Visitor Attractions: New Directions, Elsevier, Oxford.

Gilbert, D. (1990), “Strategic marketing planning for national tourism”, The Tourist Review, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 18-27.

Gomezelj, D.O. and Mihalič, T. (2008), “Destination competitiveness – applying different models, the case of Slovenia”, Tourism Management, Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 294-307.

Gooroochurn, N. and Sugiyarto, G. (2005), “Competitiveness indicators in the travel and tourism industry”, Tourism Economics, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 25-43.

Grant, R.M. (1991), “The resource-based theory of competitive advantage: implications for strategy formulation”, California Management Review, Vol. 33 No. 3, pp. 114-135.

Haugland, S.A., Ness, H., Grønseth, B.O. and Aarstad, J. (2011), “Development of tourism destinations: an integrated multilevel perspective”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 38 No. 1, pp. 268-290.

Hsieh, H. and Shannon, S.E. (2005), “Three approaches to qualitative content analysis”, Qualitative Health Research, Vol. 15 No. 9, pp. 1277-1288.

Hutcheon, L. (2013), A Theory of Adaptation, Routledge, London.

PAGE 238 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015

Kandampully, J. (2000), “The impact of demand fluctuation on the quality of service: a tourism industry example”, Managing Service Quality, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 10-19.

Kemperman, A.D., Borgers, A.W., Oppewal, H. and Timmermans, H.J. (2000), “Consumer choice of theme parks: a conjoint choice model of seasonality effects and variety seeking behavior”, Leisure Sciences, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 1-18.

King, M.J. (1981), “The new American muse: notes on the amusement/theme park”, The Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 56-62.

LeBoeuf, M. (1987), How to Win Customers and Keep Them for Life, Berkeley University Press, Berkeley.

Liu, Y.D. (2008), “Profitability measurement of UK theme parks: an aggregate approach”, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 283-288.

Løwendahl, B. and Revang, Ø (1998), “Challenges to existing strategy theory in a postindustrial society”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 19 No. 8, pp. 755-773.

McClung, G.W. (1991), “Theme park selection: factors influencing attendance”, Tourism Management, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 132-140.

Mayer, K.J. (2002), “Human resource practices and service quality in theme parks”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 14 No. 4, pp. 169-175.

Milman, A. (2009), “Evaluating the guest experience at theme parks: an empirical investigation of key attributes”, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 373-387.

Milman, A. (2010), “The global theme park industry”, Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, Vol. 2 No. 3, pp. 220-237.

Milman, A. and Dickson, D. (2014), “Employment characteristics and retention predictors among hourly employees in large US theme parks and attractions”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 26 No. 3, pp. 447-469.

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. and Berry, L. (1990), Delivering Quality Service: Balancing Customer Perceptions and Expectations, Free Press, New York, NY.

Pine, B.J. and Gilmore, J.H. (1999), The Experience Economy: Work is Theatre and Every Business is a Stage, HBS Press, Boston.

Poon, A. (1989), “Competitive strategies for a ‘new tourism’”, Progress in Tourism, Recreation and Hospitality Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 91-102.

Poon, A. (1993), Tourism, Technology and Competitive Strategies, CAB International, Wallingford.

Porter, M.E. (1980), Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors, Free Press, New York, NY.

Porter, M.E. (1996), “What is strategy?”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 74 No. 6, pp. 61-80.

Porter, M.E. (1998), “Clusters and competition: new agendas for companies, governments, and institutions”, On competition, Harvard Business Review, Boston, pp. 197-287.

Porter, M.E. (2008), “The five competitive forces that shape strategy”, Harvard Business Review: HBR’s must-Reads on Strategy, Vol. 86 No. 1, pp. 25-40.

Prahalad, C.K. and Ramaswamy, V. (2004), The Future of Competition: Co-creating Unique Value with Customers, Harvard Business School Press, Boston.

Prideaux, B. (2002), “Building visitor attractions in peripheral areas – can uniqueness overcome isolation to produce viability?”, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 4 No. 5, pp. 379-389.

Rubin, J. (2014), “Global attractions attendance report”, available at: www.aecom.com/deployedfiles/ Internet/Capabilities/Economics/_documents/ThemeMuseumIndex_2013.pdf (accessed 30 April 2015).

Stepchenkova, S. (2012), “Content analysis”, in Dwyer, L., Gill, A. and Seetaram, N. (Eds), Handbook of Research Methods in Tourism: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp. 443-458.

Yildirim, U. (2011), “Application of operations research in amusement park industry”, Wiley Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science, Wiley, London.

VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH PAGE 239

Further reading

Adams, J.A. (1991), The American Amusement Park Industry: A History of Technology and Thrills, Twayne, Independence.

Kim, S.H., Holland, S. and Han, H.S. (2013), “A structural model for examining how destination image, perceived value, and service quality affect destination loyalty: a case study of Orlando”, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 313-328.

Porter, M.E. (1990), The Competitive Advantages of Nations, Free Press, New York, NY.

Roberts, C. and Wall, G. (1979), “Possible impacts of Vaughan theme park”, Recreation Research Review, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 11-14.

Stemler, S. (2001), “An overview of content analysis”, Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, Vol. 7 No. 17, pp. 137-146.

Wong, K.K. and Cheung, P.W. (1999), “Strategic theming in theme park marketing”, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 319-332.

Corresponding author

Dallen J. Timothy can be contacted at: dtimothy@asu.edu

For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website: www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com

PAGE 240 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CULTURE, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY RESEARCH VOL. 9 NO. 3 2015

  • Competitive strategies in the US theme park industry: a popular media perspective
    • Introduction
    • Competition and strategy
      • Strategy in the theme park sector
    • Research methods
    • Analysis and discussion
      • Variety
      • Currency
      • Uniqueness
      • Innovation
      • Niche
      • Convenience
      • Value
      • Quality
    • Conclusions
    • References

Explain other viewpoints or opposing viewpoints of the Act.

Part I: HIV/AIDS has affected millions of people in the United States and the world since the 1980s. On a global scale, large numbers of people with HIV/AIDS are not receiving the needed treatment. Congress created The Ryan White Care Act of 1990 to assist public hospitals struggling financially from caring for uninsured men and women living with HIV/AIDS. There were four Titles written into The Ryan White Care Act of 1990. In recent years the Titles have moved into five Parts, Part A-F focusing on a variety of topics.

In 2014, the Affordable Care Act gave insurance access to many of the uninsured population. Over the past few decades, countries like England and Canada have a lower percentage of HIV/AIDS cases. Is this due to their healthcare structure? In 3-4 pages, discuss the following.

  1. Explain the purpose of each of the five Parts in The Ryan White Care Act.
  2. Explain other viewpoints or opposing viewpoints of the Act.
  3. Describe your stance on if there is a need for the Ryan White Care Act with the Affordable Care Act. Think about other countries.
  4. This portion of your assignment will require you to research and examine information from various sources. Use a minimum of three credible sources for your paper, with three being an academic source from the Rasmussen College Online Library (don’t forget to include in-text citations throughout your paper with paraphrasing or quoting)
  5. Make sure to include your APA formatted reference page.

Part II: Based on your research you decide which one of the previous communication tools would be most effective to communicate your findings. Keep in mind the position and facility you selected and create a memo, a PowerPoint, detailed meeting agenda, or an information sheet. In the first paragraph, slide, or bullet please justify the reason you picked communication format.

  1. In the first paragraph, slide, or bullet please justify the reason you picked the particular communication format.
  2. Use feedback from your instructor to guide you through the communication tool you decided to use.
  3. Make sure to use audience specific language and tone.

How should employees specifically approach each day and every item they encounter in the workplace and the world?

nstructions

Next month, the agency you work for is opening a sister office in a neighboring city. The Board has tapped you as Director for the new location, and you’re thrilled with your promotion. In your capacity as Director, you’ve recently hired several new employees. The latest hires are coming in for training next week, and you want to make sure they understand your vision for appropriate office culture.

On one hand, you want everyone to feel completely comfortable in their work environment. On the other hand, you believe that the best ideas are often the result of creative collaboration between peers, and that some conflict is an inevitability of this process. You’ve learned from your previous position that the best approach to leadership is clear communication of expectations. To convey your complex ideas to incoming personnel, then, you have decided to prepare a professional presentation to share at an upcoming orientation session.

Your goal is to present a “creativity constitution” for the new office. Fortunately, you’ve done something similar to this in segments at your old job. You have the relevant experience to draw on in generating strategies for enhancing both the art aesthetic and level of productivity at work. You also have exposure to methods of avoiding/resolving conflict as passionate ideas bump up against one another. This will surely prove useful in completing your upcoming task.

You have already decided to mimic your old boss and mentor, and to preface your constitution with a brief explanation of why the forthcoming presentation will prove to be so useful for each trainee. Next, for the heart of the presentation, you have deemed it essential to address the following core issues and questions:

  • How should new employees determine whether to display their preferred workplace art?
  • How should art be presented and understood when engaging on the topic with co-workers?
  • How should employees specifically approach each day and every item they encounter in the workplace and the world?
  • How will the creative talents of the employees be challenged while keeping their minds active for the creative process?
  • What activities and problem-solving systems can be utilized, and how will these systems benefit the staff and work environment?
  • What connections can be made between the employees’ level of happiness, stress, and morale to the elements of art and creativity?

You read over your list of questions, satisfied. As you close your laptop, you remember to apply another bit of helpful advice from your ex-boss: Whatever techniques and strategies I decide to recommend should be supported by a high level of thorough analysis.

The following scenario is based on an actual attack deconstructed at a seminar I attended earlier this year.

Week 3 Assignment

The following scenario is based on an actual attack deconstructed at a seminar I attended earlier this year. The names and locations have been removed to preserve the privacy of the organization in question.

Background:

No-Internal-Controls, LLC is a mid-sized pharmaceutical company in the Midwest of the US employing around 150 employees. It has grown over the past decade by merging with other pharmaceutical companies and purchasing smaller firms.

Recently No-Internal-Controls, LLC suffered a ransomware attack. The company was able to recover from the attack with the assistance of a third party IT Services Company.

Attack Analysis:

After collecting evidence and analyzing the attack, the third party was able to recreate the attack.

No-Internal-Controls, LLC has a number of PCs configured for employee training

These training computers use generic logins such as “training1”, “training2”, etc. with passwords of “training1”, “training2”, etc.

The generic logins were not subject to lock out due to incorrect logins

One of the firms purchased by No-Internal-Controls, LLC allowed Remote Desktop connections from the Internet through the firewall to the internal network for remote employees

Due to high employee turnover and lack of documentation none all of the IT staff were aware of the legacy remote access

The main office has only a single firewall and no DMZ or bastion host exists to mediate incoming remote desktop connections

The internal network utilized a flat architecture

An attacker discovered the access by use of a port scan and used a dictionary attack to gain access to one of the training computers

The attacker ran a script on the compromised machine to elevate his access privileges and gain administrator access

The attacker installed tools on the compromised host to scan the network and identify network shares

The attacker copied ransomware into the network shares for the accounting department allowing it spread through the network and encrypt accounting files

Critical accounting files were backed up and were recovered, but some incidental department and personal files were lost

Instructions:

You have been hired by No-Internal-Controls, LLC in the newly created role of CISO and have been asked to place priority on mitigating further attacks of this type.

· Suggest one or more policies that would help mitigate against attacks similar to this attack

· Suggest one or more controls to support each policy

· Identify each of the controls as physical, administrative, or technical and preventative, detective, or corrective.

· Keep in mind that No-Internal-Controls, LLC is a mid-sized company with a small IT staff and limited budget

· Do not attempt to write full policies, simply summarize each policy you suggest in one or two sentences.

· Clearly indicate how each policy you suggest will help mitigate similar attacks and how each control will support the associated policy

I want 3 pages of this assignment with 5 references.

Post a descriptive epidemiology of the chronic disease you selected. Then briefly describe the social determinants of the disease in your community.

Due 9/12   8 p.m EST

400 words not including title & ref mi 3 APA

Be on time, Original Work!

 

The epidemiology of chronic disease is complex. Most often the distribution of a chronic disease does not follow a simple pattern.The determinants of a chronic disease are multifactorial involving biology and genetics, individual behavior, health policy and service, and social factors including built environment.

The built environment consists of man-made physical and social structures including housing, workplaces, transportation, and neighborhood (e.g., sidewalks, recreation area, and crime). You spend nearly all of your time in the built environment. Emerging evidence increasingly recognizes that your built environment affects your health (Srinivasan, O’Fallon, & Dearry, 2003). However, a causal relationship between the built environment and specific chronic disease is sometimes difficult to ascertain.

For this Discussion, focus on the impact of built environment on chronic diseases. Select a chronic disease and analyze the epidemiology of the disease in your community. Then consider different theories and think about which one might best describe the occurrence of the chronic disease you selected. Finally, think about an initiative focusing on the built environment that might reduce the burden of the disease in your community.

With these thoughts in mind:

Post a descriptive epidemiology of the chronic disease you selected. Then briefly describe the social determinants of the disease in your community. Describe a theory that best explains the occurrence of this disease. Based on that theory, explain an initiative related to built environment that you might implement to reduce the burden of the disease in your community. Provide a rationale using scholarly resources.

These problems have lost the institution lots of money for not meeting government regulations and have caused operational and ethical problems from inefficient and ineffective use of technology. 

Featherfall has recently violated several government regulations regarding the current state of its technology and how it is being used. The technology system is vastly out of date, and staff are not always using the technology that is in place or they are using the technology inappropriately. These problems have lost the institution lots of money for not meeting government regulations and have caused operational and ethical problems from inefficient and ineffective use of technology.

The staff at Featherfall are not well-trained on the use of technology and do not communicate appropriately about technology use. The roles that pertinent to your consult are the health information management team, the clinical staff (doctors, nurses, etc.), and administrative staff. The health information management team uses proper coding practices, and the current technology system serves them well, despite its age. However, other roles in the hospital have had issues with the system. Clinical staff, for instance, have had record-keeping issues both due to lack of training on the system and the system itself being out of date. Administrative staff within the organization have taken issue with the lack of communication about the technology and its use between the various roles. When the current technology system was chosen many years ago, the needs of these various roles were not considered.

Assignment link :

https://learn.snhu.edu/d2l/lor/viewer/viewFile.d2lfile/243073/1720,1/

What benefits does it have for us humans?

. Write a essay three to five paragraphs for comparing and contrasting distinct types of energy like: Mechanical energy, potential energy, electricity, magnetism, and electromagnetism. In addition, discuss the applications of electricity and magnetism in real-life situations.

3.  In the same document but apart,describe and explain the properties of waves. Select one type of wave and explain it.

1. What benefits does it have for us humans?

2. Does this type of wave cause negative impact on humans?

3. How?

Please, note in this part of your assignment we are looking you explain the waves, but also you talk or explain the relation with the real-life.

Please, avoid plagiarism and use references and citations if neccesary.

Operational security teams of an organization perform various tasks dissimilar from those of cyber security and engineering.

Question: 1

These three teams have different jobs.  The operational security teams are tasked with risk management process aimed at protecting the sensitive information of an organization from falling into the wrong hands.  The team seeks to prevent cybersecurity threats that may occur, detect threats and respond to security incidences that may occur on the networks, computers or server in a timely fashion. Their job is unique because the monitor all systems on an ongoing basis (Bhatt, Manadhata & Zomlot, 2014).

The job is different from security engineering team whose focus is to design as system which   is capable of robustly dealing with possible sources of disruption in the network ranging from natural disasters to those of malicious acts. The team is also tasked with the role of protecting the network, as well as, the computer systems of an organization from any security threats or attacks. In most cases, security engineering team is responsible for the establishment and implementation of security solutions which is capable of defending a company and its networking assets (Mead & Woody, 2017).  When it comes to cyber security team,  the professionals are task with the job of protecting IT infrastructure of an organization, edge devices, networks, as well as, data. The job of cyber security team is also to prevent data breaches, monitor and react to attack that may occur in the system. They also serve to stay up to date with the recent and latest tactics that hackers are employing in the IT field (Dawson & Thomson, 2018).

Answer:

I want 150 words explanation on above paragraph. you must include at least two citations and 2 references., your sentence must be start from, I like your post, I would like to add some more details on your discussion….

Question:2 

Operational security teams of an organization perform various tasks dissimilar from those of cyber security and engineering. The operational security teams are responsible for maintaining the organization security monitoring tools so as to effectively protect the entire system regularly. This incorporates data collection which is further extended to entire network systems comprising the organization cloud infrastructure. On the other hand, security engineers are responsible for updating the systems, recommending organizations new tools and maintaining the employed tools (Blair, Hall & Sobiesk, 2019). Operational security team manages and implements various security tools and collection of technology products that offer insights within the entire organization security setting. However, cyber security engineers documents protocols, procedures and requirements so as to ensure that other organization users permission to access available resources.

Security engineers in an organization are responsible for screening and testing organization security software. In addition they frequently monitor all the functional systems and networks for prevalence of intrusions and security breaches. However security engineers can possibly resolve potential security causes of threats initial on by focusing at a certain perspective of security concerns and recommending for further improvements of management (Hámornik & Krasznay, 2017). An organization security engineer could too be hardware or software expert with a certain attention towards the security aspects fundamental during information system designing. The security system engineer tasks, in contradiction to operational security team tasks, solve emerging bulky problems by way of splitting or breaking them down into simpler and well-defined problems (pieces) on top of recalling description of the problem to be utilized during validation of solutions.

The security operational team encounters numerous challenges in achieving their various tasks through challenges in understaffing and overworking in course of executing their roles and responsibilities (Blair, Hall & Sobiesk, 2019). It is vital for effective organization security engineers emphasizing on planning and designing equipped computer systems capable of dealing with future disruptions such as malicious acts and cyber-attacks hence, resolving future security occurrences.

Answer:

I want 150 words explanation on above paragraph. you must include at least two citations and 2 references., your sentence must be start from, I like your post, I would like to add some more details on your discussion….

Discuss the services and programs that are available. How is the program funded? 

Community Health Education

Imagine you are a community health educator. Select a global health issue from the following website: http://www.globalhealth.gov/global-health-topics/. Find an agency or organization that provides community education. Discuss the services and programs that are available. How is the program funded?

Your APA-formatted response should be at least one page in length (not including title and reference pages). You are required to use at least your textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.

Cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs): How will you prevent CTDs that come from repetitive movement (e.g., carpel tunnel syndrome)? 

Safety Policies

Recall your chosen firm and industry you have been using throughout the course. For this assignment, you will identify the top three major safety and health issues in your firm, and write a policy on each, consistent with Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) standards. There is a minimum requirement of 300 words for each of the three job policies.

Each of the five domains of OSHA must be considered when writing these three policies:

  1. Hazard communication: How will you notify people of potentially dangerous or unhealthy work conditions?
  2. Blood-borne pathogens: How will you protect employees from blood-borne pathogens such as AIDS?
  3. Personal protective equipment (PPE): What equipment or tools will your employees in this job require to work safely?
  4. Cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs): How will you prevent CTDs that come from repetitive movement (e.g., carpel tunnel syndrome)?
  5. Work assignments: How will you handle potentially dangerous work assignments, especially to protect unborn babies?

NOTE: This is a three-part assignment. All three of the policies (300 words each) you write should go on one document. This one document is what will be uploaded to Blackboard.

Any sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations in APA format.

Research how Tacoma, WA used the concepts of CPTED (discussed in more detail in 10.3) to build a sense of community using lighting, natural access control and natural surveillance.

Assignment:

Research how Tacoma, WA used the concepts of CPTED (discussed in more detail in 10.3) to build a sense of community using lighting, natural access control and natural surveillance. Determine if these factors could work in your area. See:

http://cms.cityoftacoma.org/CRO/PW%20405600%20003%20DesignSafeCPTED72.pdf

I want 2 pages of this assignment with 3 references.

When asked, how will you account for the fact that health care is far from being a fundamental right rooted in American law? 

Depending on one’s personal experience in obtaining health care, or one’s view of the role of physicians in society, of law as a tool for social change, of the scope of medical ethics, or of the United States’ place in the broader global community, the no-duty principle might seem appropriate, irresponsible, or downright wrong. Imagine you are traveling in a country where socialized medicine is the legal norm, and your discussion with a citizen of that country turns to the topic of your countries’ respective health systems. When asked, how will you account for the fact that health care is far from being a fundamental right rooted in American law?

When asked, how will you account for the fact that health care is far from being a fundamental right rooted in American law?

Depending on one’s personal experience in obtaining health care, or one’s view of the role of physicians in society, of law as a tool for social change, of the scope of medical ethics, or of the United States’ place in the broader global community, the no-duty principle might seem appropriate, irresponsible, or downright wrong. Imagine you are traveling in a country where socialized medicine is the legal norm, and your discussion with a citizen of that country turns to the topic of your countries’ respective health systems. When asked, how will you account for the fact that health care is far from being a fundamental right rooted in American law?

Analyze ethical and legal dilemmas that healthcare workers may encounter in the medical field.

Analyze ethical and legal dilemmas that healthcare workers may encounter in the medical field.

1. Introduction: Explain the definition of a living will and its key components. This section will provide an educational overview of the document for the patient.

2. Living Will Template: Create a living will that can serve as a template to the patients. This should cover the basic treatment issues such as resuscitation, feeding tubes, ventilation, organ and tissue donations, etc. Provide instructions in the template that can be easily altered, depending on each patient’s wishes.

3. Summary: In this section, you will discuss the importance of this document and encourage patients to complete it. Address how this document ensures that a patient’s wishes are known and followed by the healthcare team.

Examine legal requirements for managing patient information, health information documentation, the release of information, and electronic health records.

Examine legal requirements for managing patient information, health information documentation, the release of information, and electronic health records.

You will create an informational brochure educating patients about the contents of the medical record and the proper release of information. In a double-sided brochure you need to address the following topics:

1. The Electronic Medical Record: Definition and contents of the EMR. You will want to include some of the Joint Commission’s requirements pertaining to what should be included in the medical record and when entries should be completed.

2. HIPAA/Confidentiality: Provide an overview of HIPAA and the level of confidentiality that the patient can expect from Three Mountains Regional Hospital.

3. Release of Information: Explain the process for a patient to obtain either copies or sections of their medical records. Discuss that information cannot be shared without their express permission.

4. Privacy Pledge: Craft a privacy pledge statement informing the patient that they can trust that their information will remain private.

The brochure that you will create should be a tri-fold design with two pages (the first for the outside and the second for the inside). Draw attention to your brochure by using well-placed art, an easy to read design, and use of color.

APA formatting, and proper grammar, punctuation, and form required

Evaluate public health policies and practices as they      relate to legal and ethical implications for individuals and populations.

  • Evaluate public health policies and practices as they      relate to legal and ethical implications for individuals and populations.
  • Analyze health needs, disparities, and healthcare      delivery systems within the context of cultural, social, legal, political,      and economic forces.
  • Examine the structure of the U.S. legal system and      government as it relates to ethics, law, and core principles of public      health.
  • Assess current legal and ethical principles and the      application of such principles in healthcare practice.
  • Analyze ethical and legal dilemmas that healthcare      workers may encounter in the medical field.
  • Examine legal requirements for managing patient      information, health information documentation, the release of information,      and electronic health records.

You are now ready to take the basic components you have created so far and, using those as a foundation, create the final Intake Packet the hospital will use during admissions. The Intake Packet will be comprised of the following elements:

  • A New Patient Letter to accompany the Intake Packet
    • The letter should be in business letter format
    • The letter should address the following points for the       patient:
      • An explanation of the importance of ethics
      • Why each part of the packet is included
      • How the packet is to be used
    • The letter should also include a HIPAA/Confidentiality statement
    • The letter should also include a Privacy Pledge
  • The Code of Ethics
    • Based on your PowerPoint Presentation, create a one-page bulleted Code of Ethics
  • A sample Living Will
    • Make any necessary changes to your Living Will template and include it as part of the Intake Packet
  • Create a new form for the patient to sign, acknowledging receipt of the above documents

In addition, you will craft an email to the CEO and the Board of Directors, explaining the purpose of the Intake Packet and all its components. Your email should use proper email formatting (including subject line description) and contain language appropriate to the receiver.

Finally, develop a PowerPoint presentation for placement on the Facility website.) Your audience includes past, current, and future patients. In the PowerPoint presentation, you will address the following:

  • The Ethics and Values of the organization and an overview of the Code of Ethics
  • The Purpose of the Intake Packet
  • Explanation of the Privacy Policy
  • Explanation of HIPAA, and its goals and purpose
  • Description and encouragement to sign the form acknowledging receipt

a. The PowerPoint should be between 10 and 15 slides.

SOCW 6051: Week 2 Journal

SOCW 6051: Week 2 Journal

SOCW 6051: Week 2 Journal

ivities:

Part A

According to section 1.05(c) Cultural Awareness and Social Diversity of the NASW (2017) Code of Ethics, “Social workers should obtain education about and seek to understand the nature of social diversity and oppression with respect to race, ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, age, marital status, political belief, religion, immigration status, and mental or physical ability.”

National Association of Social Workers. (2017). Code of ethics of the National Association of Social Workers. Retrieved from https://www.socialworkers.org/About/Ethics/Code-of-Ethics/Code-of-Ethics-English

Instructions: The table below shows a list of Social Identities. Place an X in the box to signify whether you hold privilege or lack privilege based on that identity. Then briefly explain why you identified as holding or lacking privilege. Provide a concrete example to demonstrate your understanding of privilege related to this specific identity characteristic. In the final column, provide a brief narrative about why you hold or lack privilege based on that specific identity.

Your place of privilege is often determined by the perceived social group in which society places you, and privilege varies depending on the context and intersecting identities. You may hold a position of privilege with one identity, while simultaneously holding a position which lacks privilege from another identity. You will not be graded on how you self-identify. The goal is to engage in self-reflection and critical thought. You may choose not to disclose any identity. If you prefer not to state, explain which groups hold privilege based on that identity characteristic and how that affects other groups.

Social Identity Hold

Privilege

Lack Privilege Prefer Not to State Why?
Example: [Social Identity] x I identify as OR Other people identify me as ____. This identity holds [does not hold] a position of privilege in society because…

In US culture, [this identity] is considered the “norm.”

A specific example of the privilege [or lack of privilege] that I experience is seeing [not seeing] positive representations of people who look or believe like me in the mass media. This is a privilege [or lack of privilege] because…

My experience with this identity characteristic is…

Race/Ethnicity X I identify as an African American. As per the African American history, most of the forefathers of the race migrated into the US as a result of slavery. It is due to such a history that African Americans have been an inferior race in the US as most of the other races do not consider African Americans as belonging in the US. Such inferiority has resulted in a lack of privileges among African Americans.

For instance, African Americans often have a hard time accessing public resources or even funds as they are viewed as a lower race compared to others. The same goes for positions of leadership where few African Americans, after a lot of struggle, have managed to get the positions. Take the case of the presidency where among the 45 presidents in the US, only one was of African American race.

My experience with this identity is that I have to put more effort than my counterparts since most people have a negative mindset about African Americans in the US.

Color x I identify as black. This identity lacks privilege in the US since white is considered as the default or norm. Such lack of privileges is evidenced by the small numbers of blacks in governance and in ownership of property among others.

In the US, blacks are considered untrustworthy and violent. An example of such a perception is shown in stores when blacks are followed around when shopping as they are thought to be prone to shoplifting.

My experience with this identity has been discouraging as I have lost opportunities due to my race sometimes even without knowing.

Sex x I identify as a female. Due to the male-dominated society, especially in terms of power and influence, the female identity lacks privileges. An example is a case where a leadership opportunity occurs and the society readily accepts the idea of a man taking the leadership role as opposed to a woman. Such a mentality explains why among the 45 presidents the US has had, no woman has made it to the seat so far. Moreover, most religions advocate for men to take leadership roles, which makes it harder for women.

My experience with this identity, a black African American female, is that my views or opinions are often undervalued and thus making my career progression slow down.

Sexual Orientation x I identify as a heterosexual. This identity holds privilege as it is considered the norm in the US culture. Being a heterosexual is readily accepted in the US and in most cases advantageous. For example, it is easier for a heterosexual family man or woman to obtain a home in almost all neighborhoods as opposed to their counterparts.

My experience with this identity is that I am readily accepted in most societal organizations such as schools, religious places, neighborhoods.

Gender Identity or Expression X I identify as a cisgender since my self-identity is in line with the gender I was assigned at birth. Being a cisgender holds privileges as it is considered the norm in the US culture. For instance, I experience no opposition or conflicts when buying items related to my gender such as clothes or makeup or even going to the bathrooms.

My experience as a cisgender is that I rarely have a hard time getting a partner due to a large number of heterosexual cisgenders as they are considered as the norm in US culture.

National Origin
Immigration Status
Age
Marital Status
Political Belief
Religion

PART B:

According to the preamble to the NASW (2017) Code of Ethics, “The primary mission of the social work profession is to enhance human well-being and help meet the basic human needs of all people, with particular attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty.”

However, addressing social oppression often means challenging our own positions of power and privilege. This can evoke difficult emotions, and there may be times you will want to disengage from the work. As a social worker, it is essential to engage in critical reflection so that unexamined personal bias does not negatively affect client interaction.

Instructions: Based on your experience completing Part A, answer the reflective questions in the Table below. Responses should be short answer and demonstrate critical thought and self-reflection.

Question Response
What feelings did you experience when identifying positions of privilege?
Why do you think you experienced these feelings?
What feelings did you experience when identifying identities that may lack privilege?
Why do you think you experienced these feelings?
How may these feelings help or hinder your ability to competently engage in culturally aware social work services?
What does it mean that social identity and privilege are socially constructed?
What are specific steps that you will take during this quarter to develop your understanding of concepts presented and be willing to consider diverse perspectives?

PART C

Social Workers advocate for human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice. The reasons that social workers engage in critical reflection is to be able to identify their own positionally, disrupt their role in oppressive structures, and use their power and privileges to advocate for social justice for all groups. For this part of the journal, you examine environmental justice.

According to the Council on Social Work Education (2015):

Environmental justice occurs when all people equally experience high levels of environmental protection and no group or community is excluded from the environmental policy decision-making process, nor is affected by a disproportionate impact from environmental hazards. Environmental justice affirms the ecological unity and the interdependence of all species, respect for cultural and biological diversity, and the right to be free from ecological destruction. This includes responsible use of ecological resources, including the land, water, air, and food. (p. 20)

CSWE. (2015). 2015 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards for Baccalaureate and Master’s Social Work Programs. Retrieved from https://www.cswe.org/getattachment/Accreditation/Standards-and-Policies/2015-EPAS/2015EPASandGlossary.pdf.aspx

Instructions : Using the table below answer the following questions. Responses should be short answer and demonstrate critical thought and self-reflection.

Questions Response
How is environmental justice related to human rights, social justice, and economic justice?
Describe two different locations within your community that when compared demonstrate environmental injustice. If possible, insert an image into this document showing the environment.
How do the identity characteristics you identified in Part A of this Journal influence your relationship to these two locations in your community?
What is the social worker’s role in addressing environmental justice?
What are specific steps you can take to address environment justice in your community?

[Insert Image 1 here]

[Insert Image 2 here]

References

Joseph, R. P., Ainsworth, B. E., Keller, C., & Dodgson, J. E. (2015). Barriers to physical activity among African American women: an integrative review of the literature. Women & health55(6), 679-699.

Horsford, S. D., & Tillman, L. C. (Eds.). (2016). Intersectional identities and educational leadership of Black women in the USA. Routledge.

For this assignment, you’ll compile a list of sources you might lean on to do this semester’s work. 

For this assignment, you’ll compile a list of sources you might lean on to do this semester’s work. The sources MUST relate directly to the issue you’ve described in your discussion post, and must adhere to the following guidelines:

  • Four Academic Sources
    • peer reviewed, taken from any of the wide range of databases our library offers
  • Four Internet Sources
    • news sites, non-profit sites, commercial sites
  • Two Multimedia Sources
    • Video, Film, Podcast, Radio, Television, etc
  • FOUR Opinion-based Articles
    • Most mainstream news sites contain opinion sections, but these can be drawn from any source you’d like–as long as they express a clear opinion about the issue you’re researching
    • Your opinion-based sources should be evenly distributed on either side of the issue. In other words, think of this as finding two articles that agree, then two articles that disagree with the first two

List these on a Works Cited page according to MLA guidelines, and submit as a Word document before the deadline. This assignment is part of your participation/discussion grade, and will be graded on completion. Also, this assignment is designed to lay the groundwork for the Annotated Bibliography, so you’ll be using several of these sources next week.

What cultural differences would you expect? 

Race and Ethnicity

Please meet deadline

Follow Instructions

0% plagiarism

You can choose either one:

Using cultural relativism, consider what it means to become an immigrant to the United States from a non-Western country of origin;

·  What cultural differences would you expect?

·  What challenges would you expect?

·  What do you think would be most difficult to leave behind?

Make a list of what you think would be the most difficult aspects of changing countries and changing culture.

Choose one of the options below for your assignment this week:

Option A (650 words)

1.  If “race” doesn’t exist, why is racism still such a pervasive problem today?

2.  In human societies, is it possible for peoples to be different and yet equal?

3.  Can you recall social situations in which you (or people around you) changed their accents or manner of speaking? Do you think this was conscious or unconscious? What was the context for this shift in language? What meaning did it have for you and others?

4.  Did this language shift symbolize certain relationships among the people involved?

Option B (650 words)

1.  Ethnic group conflict and violence—and understanding their causes and consequences—are central concerns for contemporary anthropologists. What ethnic conflicts are you aware of being waged today?

2.  Identify a specific area in the world in which violence or warfare is defined as rooted in ethnic group conflict.

3.  On the basis of brief research, describe which ethnic groups are engaged in this conflict.

4.  How is the conflict explained by the different groups involved: Which group(s) did what?

Why? Does it matter? would you be better served to live and receiving your healthcare services in another country?

On two different paragraph Give your personal opinion to Casie Woodruff and  Havilah Dieterle

Havilah Dieterle

In the united states, we spend more money per capita on healthcare than any other industrialized nation. yet, many of our public health outcomes measure significantly worse than these other countries. Why? Does it matter? would you be better served to live and receiving your healthcare services in another country?

The United States spends more money per capita on healthcare than any other industrialized nation, more than $3.2 trillion a year on healthcare, with estimates to spend $49 trillion over the next decade.” (U.S. Senate Sanders.) The public health outcomes are significantly worse than other 32 industrialized nations, this is because they have successfully implemented universal healthcare models that provide accessible government ran public health programs.

Universal healthcare models make a huge impact on the success of other countries and their healthcare. The United States does little to control the prices of healthcare costs in relation to services and prescription drug prices, while other countries “keep hospitals on a fixed budget to control costs to reimburse doctors at a fee-for-service rate.” (The Balance) In addition, in a model with Government taking responsibility for universal healthcare, the cost of prescription drugs are kept down because their government officials argue for lower prices. If the United States were to implement a universal healthcare model it would aid in decreasing the costs of prescription drugs by up to $113 billion per year. (U.S. Senate Sanders.)

Universal healthcare makes a huge difference in accessibility to care and the price of care, in some cases citizens would be better served to live in a country that offers universal healthcare. Those that are uninsured or underinsured within the United States could greatly benefit from the healthcare that they could receive in other countries.

Citations

U.S. Senate Sanders. (n.d.). Options To Finance Medicare For All[PDF file]. Retrieved September 10, 2019 from https://www.sanders.senate.gov/download/options-to-finance- Medicare-for-all?inline=file

The Balance. (2019, June 25). Why America Is the Only Rich Country Without Universal Health Care. Retrieved from https://www.thebalance.com/universal-health-care-4156211

 

Casie Woodruff

In the US we spend more money per capita on healthcare than any other industrialized nation. Yet, many of our public health outcomes measure significantly worse than these other countries. Why? Does it matter? Would you be better served living and receiving your healthcare services in another country?

We definitely need to make improvements with our healthcare system. Even though we seem to spend the most on healthcare costs, we definitely don’t have the same outcomes as other countries do. We have the largest per capita healthcare expenditures according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (US $9,024, Germany $5,119, Italy $3,620). The average is only around $3,207. We are way off! The US “spent almost three times on healthcare as the average of other countries”. According to the experts, there are two underlying reasons why the United States spends so much on healthcare: it uses expensive medical technology and prices for healthcare services, and goods are higher than other countries (Etehad & Kim, 2017). And it’s sad to say that we as Americans have shorter life spans than those of 30 other countries (United States, 79.3 years). This is one way that researchers look at how effective our healthcare system really is. The US as a whole has a higher rate of people who are uninsured when it comes to healthcare access. Although no two countries have the exact same healthcare system, many nations on the list—such as Sweden, Japan, and the Netherlands—provide their residents with a universal healthcare insurance plan (Etehad & Kim, 2017). This equals 100% from other countries that actually have healthcare coverage. A lot of governments play a role in creating the funds are this exchange of free healthcare to happen. Unfortunately, “the United States is the only wealthy country without universal coverage”. Back in 2013, there were a large number of individuals who died from preventable diseases.

With healthcare becoming so expensive, many Americans are flying across the world just for healthcare and procedures. This is known as “medical tourism”. This has expanded across the world over the last several years and is estimated to grow “25% over the next decade”. Individuals are traveling thousands of miles just to receive treatment that may not be approved in the US and they may have the opportunity to receive this care quicker if they travel to another country. This has become so popular that employers are offering these medical tourism benefits to their employees. Hospitals overseas can often charge lower prices because their doctors are paid less, and they may not have to carry the same medical malpractice insurance as American doctors (Braverman, 2016). You have to be careful with language barriers, counterfeit medications, and blood that may not have been screened properly. Also, people who are having surgery have to be cautious and think about their recovery. Are you going to be able to fly home safely? What if something happens and you need to file a malpractice suit against one of the providers? Unfortunately, you may not have protection like we do in the United States with HIPAA. If your current insurance won’t cover your trip for treatment, you may have to purchase a separate insurance called “medical complications insurance”. Do your research! You want to make sure you look into the hospitals and make sure they are use to taking care of international patients. It depends on what type of procedure you are having, but you could be in that country for several weeks. The CDC recommends that you not fly for at least 10 days after surgery due to the increased risk of blood clots (Braverman, 2016). From doing research for this discussion, I would personally look at my options here in the United States. You can most likely find affordable treatment instead of planning to go to another country.

Etehad, M. & Kim, K. 18 Jul 2017. Los Angeles Times: The U.S. Spends more on healthcare than any other country—but not with better health outcomes. Retrieved from URL address: https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-healthcare-comparison-20170715-htmlstory.html

Braverman, Beth. 17 Aug 2016. The Fiscal Times: 1.4 Million Americans Will Go Abroad for Medical Care This Year. Should You? Retrieved from URL Address: https://www.thefiscaltimes.com/2016/08/17/14-Million-Americans-Will-Go-Abroad-Medical-Care-Year-Should-You

Submit a 2- to 4-page paper in which you choose a theory of development from another discipline (refer to Erikson, Piaget, Freud etc.).

Competent social workers are able to construct a strong foundation upon which to build skills by understanding theories from a variety of disciplines. The disciplines of psychology, education, and sociology offer a number of development theories that can easily be applied to the practice of social work. For this Assignment, consider how a theory from another discipline may shed light on social work practice with children and adolescents.

By Sunday 9/15/19

Submit a 2- to 4-page paper in which you choose a theory of development from another discipline (refer to Erikson, Piaget, Freud etc.). In your analysis, be sure to address how the theory does or does not relate to social work practice. Please use the Learning Resources to support your answer. USE APA and readings from:

Zastrow, C. H., Kirst-Ashman, K. K., & Hessenauer, S. L.  (2019). Understanding human behavior and the social environment (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

  • Chapter 3, “Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood” (pp. 95-158)

Oshri, A., Lucier-Greer, M., O’neal, C. W., Arnold, A. L., Mancini, J. A., & Ford, J. L. (2015). Adverse childhood experiences, family functioning, and resilience in military families: A pattern-based approach. Family Relations, 64(1), 44–63.

Do not proceed with paper without discussing some form of cyber security within cloud computing as I stated in my feedback to you in the thesis submission

PowerPoint presentation outlining the content of your paper. At a minimum include the following:

  • Detailed description of the area researched
  • Technology involved in the area
  • Future trends in the area
  • Example companies involved in the area
  • Regulatory issues surrounding the area
  • Global implications for the area
  • References (minimum of 10)

Remember to talk about cyber security.

 

Other than the bullet about privacy, I do not see any other references to cyber security in your paper. WARNING: Do not proceed with paper without discussing some form of cyber security within cloud computing as I stated in my feedback to you in the thesis submission. Doing so risks failure of your paper.

With consideration to the Instructor and peer feedback you have received, and following the guidance found in the Dissertation Premise Guide, develop a first draft of your Premise.

Due 9/15  8 p.m EST

(3 pages: 1 page Premise, 1 page cover, 1 page references)

Be on time, Original work!

Will send title to inbox

 

The Assignment: Dissertation Premise, first draft

(3 pages: 1 page Premise, 1 page cover, 1 page references)

· With consideration to the Instructor and peer feedback you have received, and following the guidance found in the Dissertation Premise Guide, develop a first draft of your Premise.

Completing the Premise The Dissertation Premise consists of four parts: title, problem statement, approach for the study, and references. An annotated outline is included in this guide and should be used to create your premise document. You will also find a sample premise herein to serve as a model for your work, and a preformatted template is available on the Writing Center’s Doctoral Capstone Form and Style website. Your primary goal for the premise is to narrow your dissertation topic such that you have provided a general sense of the direction of your research by identifying an initial problem to study. At this point, you do not need to know everything about the research project, especially the details of your methodology.

What challenges are present in the scenario, and what are some steps that can be taken to address them?

Consider the following scenarios:

Scenario 1: One of the physicians on staff is telling you about a study that he is doing on his patients. He hopes to have the study published and to receive a grant to expand his research. He offers to hire you to help him with the data collection during your off hours. You accept and begin helping him. You start collecting data. When you access the file the next day, you realize that he has removed a number of patients from the study. You suspect that they were removed intentionally, but you cannot be sure. You put your suspicions aside and proceed with your work and add more patients to the database. A few days later, more patients have been removed from the database. When you do some investigation, you discover that the patients who were removed were sicker and/or had a poor outcome. This is a problem and may prevent the rewarding of the grant money to this project.

Scenario 2: You are traveling with your work laptop to a conference and leave it for five minutes at the airport terminal as you go to the bathroom. You asked your colleague to keep an eye on it, but when you return, your colleague has boarded the plane and taken your belongings. As you look through, you realize your laptop is missing. When you confront your colleague, she says it was just there a moment ago and she is certain she brought it on board with her. Your laptop contains secure information regarding your organization and has remote access to your clinical information system. The policy at your organization for a data breach is to call tech support immediately and report the breach. You think it may just be misplaced and begin looking.

Choose one of the scenarios above and answer the following:

  • What challenges are present in the scenario, and what are some steps that can be taken to address them?
  • What is the relationship between ethics and policy? Do they always match up with one another?
  • If individual ethics do not align with organizational policy, what might be the end result?

Support your answer with relevant resources.

FPH 7240 – Introduction to Epidemiology

FPH 7240 – Introduction to Epidemiology

Fall 2019

Assignment 3

Due: Thursday, September 19, 2019 at noon

Readings: Aschengrau & Seague, Ch. 5 “Descriptive Epidemiology” & Ch. 6 “Overview of Epidemiologic Study Designs”

Question 1:

The following questions are based on the Research Article Summary of the paper, “Changing dynamics of the drug overdose epidemic in the United States from 1979 through 2016” by Jalal et al., published in Science in 2018. (Note: The full article is also included if you would like to see the more detailed findings, but the questions below can be answered from the one page summary on the first page).

a) From the one-page summary, what is your best assessment of what the case definition is in this study?

In questions b, c, and d, below, please summarize the descriptive epidemiology of the findings presented in this one-page summary with respect to the following:

b) Person (who is dying from drug overdoses?)

c) Place (where is risk of overdose death highest?)

d) Time (how did drug overdose patterns change over time?)

Question 2:

Use the data from a real, closed population in the tables below to answer the following questions:

Deaths and Death Rates from an Unusual Event, by Sex and Socioeconomic Status

Socioeconomic Status
Sex Measure High Middle Low Total
Males Persons at risk 179 173 499 851
Deaths 120 148 441 709
Death rate (%) 67.0 85.5 88.4 83.3
Females Persons at risk 143 107 212 462
Deaths 9 13 132 154
Death rate (%) 6.3 12.6 62.3 33.3

Deaths and Death Rates from an Unusual Event, by Age and Socioeconomic Status

Socioeconomic Status
Sex Measure High/Middle Low Total
Adults Persons at risk 566 664 1230
Deaths 287 545 832
Death rate (%) 50.7 82.1 67.6
Children Persons at risk 36 47 83
Deaths 3 28 31
Death rate (%) 8.3 59.6 37.3

a) Describe the death rate patterns for the “Unusual Event” between men and women overall and by socioeconomic status.

b) What was the relative risk of death for men compared with women? Please describe your finding in a sentence.

c) What was the relative risk of death for high-SES vs. low-SES females? What was the relative risk of death for high-SES vs. low-SES males? Please describe your answers in a sentence or two.

d) Describe the death rate patterns for the “Unusual Event” among adults and children overall and in different socioeconomic classes.

e) Assuming low socioeconomic status is a cause of death in this unusual event, what proportion of deaths among the low-SES adults could have been prevented if they were instead in the high/middle SES group? Please describe this finding in a sentence.

f) Describe the death rate patterns for the “Unusual Event” among the different socioeconomic classes overall (men and women combined from the data provided in the first table).

Socioeconomic Status
Sex Measure High Middle Low Total
Males Persons at risk 179 173 499 851
Deaths 120 148 441 709
Death rate (%) 67.0 85.5 88.4 83.3
Females Persons at risk 143 107 212 462
Deaths 9 13 132 154
Death rate (%) 6.3 12.6 62.3 33.3
Total Persons at risk
Deaths
Death rate (%)

g) Hypothesize what type of situation might result in such death rate patterns. What closed population could these data be from?

Question 3:

Classify each of the following studies as one of the following study designs:

· Experimental

· Prospective cohort

· Retrospective cohort

· Case-control

· Cross-sectional

· Ecologic

a) A representative sample of patients were interviewed and asked how much they exercise each week and whether they currently have (have ever been diagnosed with) heart disease.

b) In 2015, the occurrence of cancer was identified from April 1991 and July 2002 for 50,000 troops who served in the first Gulf War (ended April 1991) and 50,000 troops who served elsewhere during the same period. None of the troops in either group had ever been diagnosed with cancer before April 1991.

c) Persons diagnosed with new-onset Lyme disease were asked how often they walk through woods, use insect repellant, wear short sleeves and pants, etc. Twice as many patients without Lyme disease from the same physician’s practice were asked the same questions, and the responses in the two groups were compared.

d) Subjects were children enrolled in a health maintenance organization. With parent permission, at 2 months, each child was randomly given one of two types of a new vaccine against rotavirus infection. Parents were called by a nurse two weeks later and asked whether the children had experienced any of a list of side effects.

e) Eight hundred (800) new cases of glaucoma were identified in 2004 using the state registry. Eight hundred (800) population-based individuals without glaucoma were identified using random digit dialing and were frequency-matched to the individuals with glaucoma on age, race, and gender. Of the 120 subjects who reported using contact lenses, 83 had glaucoma. Of those without glaucoma, 79 report using contact lenses.

f) A study that examines the incidence of lead poisoning in each of the 50 U.S. states in relation to the average exposure to lead in each state from NHANES biomonitoring data.

g) Among 4,000 male smokers and 6,000 male nonsmokers, it was determined that 280 smokers and 344 nonsmokers had macular degeneration. After following the men who did not already have macular degeneration for several years, an additional 580 smokers and 230 nonsmokers developed macular degeneration by the end of the study period.

h) Students at Wayne State University are asked in a web survey about the average time they currently spend in front of a laptop or computer and whether they currently wear prescription eyeglasses or contacts.

Question 4:

State which observational study design (case-control, retrospective cohort, prospective cohort) is best for following scenarios and provide an explanation for why you chose that study design.

a) Evaluating maternal exposures to prescription medications, illicit drugs, and environmental chemical exposure and risk of transposition of the great arteries (TGA) in newborns. The annual cumulative incidence of TGA in the U.S. is 20-30/100,000 live births, which is very rare.

b) Identifying the health effects of exposure to Agent Orange among Vietnam War veterans 30 years after exposure.

c) Evaluating genetic predisposition to polycystic ovarian syndrome, for which few causes are currently known, by testing whether hundreds of thousands of genetic markers are associated with PCOS.

Question 5:

The following graph depicts age-adjusted breast cancer death rates plotted against the total dietary fat intake for each of 39 countries.

a) Describe the trends depicted by the graph in terms of the relationship between dietary fat intake and breast cancer mortality.

b) Generate a hypothesis about the relationship between dietary fat intake and breast cancer mortality based on these data.

c) Provide an alternative explanation for the trend you described in part a, other than a true causal association between dietary fat intake and breast cancer mortality.

1

PhD candidates should provide an authentic personal statements to each of the five following questions/prompts reflecting on their own personal interest.

WRITTEN INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

cPhD candidates should provide an authentic personal statements to each of the five following questions/prompts reflecting on their own personal interest.. In the event that any outside resources are used, resources should be cited in APA format. Submissions should be a maximum of 500 words or 125 words per question/prompt. It is best to respond to each prompt/question individually for clarity of the reviewer. Documents should be submitted in Microsoft Word format

Paper Section 1: Reflection and Literature Review

Graded Assignment:  Knowledge and Skills Paper

Paper Section 1: Reflection and Literature Review

Using Microsoft Word and Professional APA format, prepare a professional written paper supported with three sources of research that details what you have learned from chapters 6, 7 and 8.  This section of the paper should be a minimum of two pages.

Paper Section 2:  Exercises and Problems

In this section of the professional paper, apply what you have learned from chapters 6, 7 and 8 to descriptively address and answer the problems below:

Important Note:  There is no specific page requirement for this section of the paper but make sure any content provided fully addresses each problem.  Also note that when picking problems, they could be tied or linked to other problems which may need to be worked.

  1. Pick any “one” problem from the “Problems” section of chapter 6. Then answer and address descriptive details.
  2. Pick any “one” problem from the “Problems” section of chapter 7. Then answer and address descriptive details.
  3. Pick any “one” problem from the “Problems” section of chapter 8. Then answer and address descriptive details.

Paper Section 3:  Conclusions

After addressing the problems, conclude your paper with details on how you will use this knowledge and skills to support your professional and or academic goals. This section of the paper should be around one page.

Demonstration of Proficiency 

Demonstration of Proficiency

By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria:

  • Competency 1: Describe the historical development of the humanities from the prehistoric era to the present.
    • Assess the role of narrative structure and dramatic form in modern drama.
  • Competency 2: Examine the forms of expression that instantiate the arts and humanities.
    • Explain how Shakespeare’s Hamlet externalizes the inner thoughts of Hamlet.
    • Develop a soliloquy that dramatizes a selected character’s point of view.
  • Competency 3: Integrate the humanities with everyday life.
    • Express a unique personal narrative in soliloquy form.
  • Competency 4: Communicate effectively in forms appropriate to the humanities.
    • Write coherently to support a central idea in appropriate format with correct grammar, usage, and mechanics.

Instructions

In Hamlet, Shakespeare makes significant use of extended monologues, or soliloquies, to express the thoughts and feelings of Hamlet in dramatic form. For this assessment, write a 6–8-page essay in which you explore the use of this technique in three distinct ways:

  1. Select one of Hamlet’s soliloquies from the play and analyze how it displays his inner thoughts for the audience in dramatic form.
  2. Use evidence from the play to compose a soliloquy that expresses the point of view of one of the following characters: Gertrude, Claudius, Ophelia, or Polonius. Into which act of the play would you insert this additional speech?
  3. Write a soliloquy for yourself, expressing the central narrative of your own life in dramatic form. Think of yourself as a character, explaining yourself to an audience that does not include those who play the most important roles in your life.

This assessment requires you to employ your critical skills in analyzing a work of literature but also gives you the opportunity to apply what you have learned in creative expression of your own.

Additional Requirements
  • Written communication: Written communication should be free of errors that detract from the overall message.
  • APA formatting: Should be formatted according to current APA style and formatting.
  • Length: 6–8 typed and double-spaced pages.
  • Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point.

By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria

Demonstration of Proficiency

By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria:

  • Competency 1: Describe the historical development of the humanities from the prehistoric era to the present.
    • Describe how the visual arts developed in the 17th through 20th centuries.
  • Competency 2: Examine the forms of expression that instantiate the arts and humanities.
    • Explain the aesthetic principles expressed in the visual arts.
  • Competency 3: Integrate the humanities with everyday life.
    • Illustrate the use of visual arts in commercial design.
    • Assess how visual images in advertising influence our buying habits.
  • Competency 4: Communicate effectively in forms appropriate to the humanities.
    • Write coherently to support a central idea in appropriate format with correct grammar, usage, and mechanics.

Instructions

For this assessment, complete the following:

  • Write a 4–6-page essay explaining the aesthetic principles expressed in visual arts and describe how they changed from the Baroque period through the early twentieth century.
    • Which basic features were preserved through the centuries, and which changed dramatically?
    • How do you think artists choose which styles to employ in their own work?
  • Consider how these styles are exemplified in commercial design during our own time. Collect eight or ten visual images from web sites and advertisements and explain how they incorporate traditional elements of visual design.
    • Are our decisions to purchase items of clothing, jewelry, automobiles, appliances, and services influenced significantly by the visual forms in which they are presented?

Although your paper should offer a general thesis about the use of visual arts, much of the support you offer in its defense will involve details chosen from the specific examples you select. As you write, look for ways to tie everything together with your own view of the role that the visual arts continue to play in our everyday lives.

Additional Requirements
  • Written communication: Should be free of errors that detract from the overall message.
  • APA formatting: Your paper should be formatted according to current APA style and formatting.
  • Length: 4–6 typed and double-spaced pages.
  • Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point.

Identify significant cultural developments from a variety of historical eras.

Demonstration of Proficiency

By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the course competencies through the following assessment scoring guide criteria:

  • Competency 1: Describe the historical development of the humanities from the prehistoric era to the present.
    • Identify significant cultural developments from a variety of historical eras.
    • Assess the influence of past expressions of the humanities on present-day life.
  • Competency 2: Examine the forms of expression that instantiate the arts and humanities.
    • Describe the forms of expression that instantiate the arts and humanities.
  • Competency 3: Integrate the humanities with everyday life.
    • Explain how the arts and humanities affect everyday life.
    • Assess the role of philosophical, religious, and aesthetic values in everyday life.
  • Competency 4: Communicate effectively in forms appropriate to the humanities.
    • Write coherently to support a central idea in appropriate format with correct grammar, usage, and mechanics.

Instructions

For this assessment, complete the following in an 8–10-page essay:

  • Compile a list of twenty significant cultural developments from the past. You may use the Personal Significance interactive media piece (linked in the assessment resource activity) to help assemble this list:
    • Describe the cultural developments you noted and then evaluate their applications to modern life.
    • Notice any compelling themes. Are there any common themes or persistent forms of expression, or especially vital historical periods, among your choices? Think about what the items you selected say about who you are and what gives your life meaning.
  • Consider how these developments impact your everyday life in a personal way. The cultural background of humanities disciplines provide some structure, of course, but what really matters are your own feelings, perceptions, thoughts, and decisions.
    • How does an understanding of the humanities impact your life?
    • How do you integrate the philosophical, religious, and aesthetic values of the humanities into daily living?

This essay will be an intensely personal one—make it a worthwhile exercise.

Additional Requirements
  • Written communication: Should be free of errors that detract from the overall message.
  • APA formatting: Your paper should be formatted according to current APA style and formatting.
  • Length: 8–10 typed and double-spaced pages.
  • Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point.

Summarize the key details about your organization (who it is and what it does).

Instructions

Applying OB Theory to Solutions

The Week 5 assignment is considered a major assignment that might take more than one week to complete.

Using the same organization you identified in Week 1, critically analyze interventions for addressing organizational problems using individual OB themes. Now that you have diagnosed a set of organizational problems (in your Week 1 and Week 3 papers), consider what action steps or interventions are required; who needs to participate in those interventions; when those interventions need to occur; and how you will evaluate the effectiveness of those interventions. You should include new insights about problems and root causes that have emerged since you completed your earlier work in the class.

In preparation for your Week 5 paper, design an intervention and evaluation plan that addresses the what, who, when, and how questions noted in the previous paragraph. Consult your instructor for guidance, as needed. Focus on individual OB themes.

Imagine that you are presenting the plan to the CEO. Although actual consulting work might use a consulting report or even a presentation, for this assignment, prepare your presentation as a rigorous academic paper so that you can continue building those academic writing skills early in your doctoral program.

Tasks:

In your paper, address the following:

  • Summarize the key details a
  • Summarize the key details about your organization (who it is and what it does).
  • bout your organization (who it is and what it does).
  • Summarize your diagnosis of organizational problems, being sure to differentiate between symptoms and root causes. Focus on individual OB themes.
  • Assess the consequences to the organization if interventions (solutions) to the problems are not implemented.
  • Assess the potential benefits to the organization if interventions are successful.
  • Justify an intervention plan (i.e., what, who, and when).
  • Justify an evaluation plan (i.e., how you will know your interventions were successful).

Use appropriate academic, peer-reviewed literature to support your arguments. You may also use documentation and interviews from the organization to support your perspective.

Submission Details:

  • Complete your analysis in an 8- to 10-page Microsoft Word document, using APA style.

An explanation of how classism is demonstrated in the Hernandez video.

Power, privilege, and classism are interconnected. The more privilege you enjoy, the more power you have to access opportunities that build wealth. The more wealth you can amass, the higher your social standing. It is important to note that having wealth is not an indictment. However, the privileges that have often led to inequalities in wealth distribution are real. As a social worker, you may find yourself working with clients who do not enjoy the privileges you knowingly or unknowingly enjoy. The more you understand your own relationship to power, privilege, and class, the better you will understand your clients’ realities. For this Discussion, review how classism is represented in the Hernandez family.

Use APA Format and citings from:

Adams, M., Blumenfeld, W. J., Castaneda, C., Catalano, D. C. J., DeJong, K., Hackman, H. W,… Zuniga, X. (Eds.). (2018). Readings for diversity and social justice (4th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge Press.

  • Section 3 Intro Classism (pp. 164-172)
  • Chapter 26, Class in America (pp. 173-182)
  • Chapter 28, Race, Wealth, and Equality (pp. 185-191)
  • Chapter 29, What’s Debt got to do with it? (pp. 192-195)
  • Chapter 34, Deep thoughts about class privilege (pp. 204-208)
  • Chapter 41, “Classism from our mouths” and “Tips from Working-class activists” (pp. 229-233)
  • Chapter 42, Deep thoughts about class privilege (pp. 223-237)

Post

  • An explanation of how classism is demonstrated in the Hernandez video.
  • Identify specific barriers to social services that the Hernandez family experiences because of their class status (e.g., working poor).
  • Explain how the intersection of class (e.g., working poor), ethnicity (e.g., Hispanic), and migration history (e.g., move from Puerto Rico to mainland) may further impact the Hernandez’s experience.
  • Identity 2-3 strengths in the Hernandez family.
  • Provide recommendations for how social workers might address issues of classism present in the Hernandez case.
  • Explain how recommendations would address class issues.

Heres the case work on Hernandez Family:

Hernandez Family Episode 4 Program Transcript FEMALE SPEAKER: So how’s your week going? What’s happening with that Hernandez family? That’s their name, right? You were having some challenges there? FEMALE SPEAKER: They’ve missed four of their parenting classes, so far. FEMALE SPEAKER: So they haven’t completed the parenting group? FEMALE SPEAKER: I have to call the ACS worker and let her know. They’re probably going to have to take the classes over again, and that’s going to be tough. The father misses overtime to come to the classes, and they really rely on that money to make ends meet. FEMALE SPEAKER: You have something else on your mind. Say it. FEMALE SPEAKER: I should have discussed this with you earlier. I don’t know why I didn’t. But perhaps they weren’t the best candidates for this to begin with. FEMALE SPEAKER: Because of their financial situation? FEMALE SPEAKER: Yes, and something else. I remember the ACS worker. And when she talked about wanting Elena, she kept calling them Mexicans. It was really derogatory the way she said it. FEMALE SPEAKER: So you’re saying she might have been biased into mandating that they take these classes? FEMALE SPEAKER: Yes. The more I think about it, she never talked to me about trying to understand the way they’re raising their children. And that Mexican remark, it just really wasn’t respectful. It’s like she had already made up her mind about people from that culture, and now they’re paying the price for it.

Assignment: Child Abuse and

What does this correlation tell you?

Prior to beginning work on this discussion forum, read Chapter 8 in the course textbook and the Instructor Guidance for Week 5 and review the Correlation Doesn’t Equal Causation: Crash Course Statistics #8 (Links to an external site.) and The Danger of Mixing Up Causality and Correlation: Ionica Smeets at TEDxDelft (Links to an external site.) videos. In this post, you will be challenged to look at how statistical tests, such as correlation, are commonly used and the possible limitations of such analyses. Additionally, you will need to explain statistical concepts; accurately interpret results of statistical tests; and assess assumptions, limitations, and implications associated with statistical tests.

Much has been written about the relationship between students’ SAT test scores and their family’s income. Generally speaking, there is a strong positive correlation between income and SAT scores. Consider and discuss the following questions as you respond:

  • What does this correlation tell you?
  • Is this correlation evidence that having a high family income causes one to have high SAT scores?
  • Is this correlation evidence that high SAT scores cause higher income? Or does this tell you something else? Explain your answer.
  • Explain why correlation alone is rarely sufficient to demonstrate cause.
  • Provide a personal example of two variables that may be correlated but not have a cause and effect relationship. Identify what type of bivariate correlation is involved, based on the measurement scales of the variables.

Resources:

227

8Correlation

Anrodphoto/iStock/Thinkstock

Chapter Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Explain the hypothesis of association.

2. Interpret the correlation coefficient.

3. List the Pearson correlation requirements.

4. Describe what the coefficient of determination explains.

5. Explain the variables involved in the point-biserial correlation.

6. Describe the applications for the Spearman correlation.

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 227 3/3/16 12:33 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.1 The Hypothesis of Association

Introduction Correlation, the concept of a relationship or dependence between variables, transcends statisti- cal analysis. Cloudy days are related to (correlated with) cooler temperatures. Natural disasters are related to declines in the stock market. An impending test is related to the need to study, and grinding noises in the engine compartment of a car are usually related to repair bills.

Some relationships are stronger than others, so statistical procedures have been developed to quantify, or numerically gauge, the strength of the relationship between two variables. The numerical indicators are called correlation coefficients, and one of the most common is the Pearson correlation coefficient, which indicates the strength of the relationship between interval- or ratio-scale variables. The name Pearson refers to Karl Pearson, whose impact not just on studying correlation but on statistical analysis generally may be greater than that of any other individual.

In the early years of the 20th century, Pearson founded the first department of statistical analy- sis at University College London. Under Pearson’s direction, the department attracted, among others, William Sealy Gosset of t test fame; Ronald Fisher, who produced analysis of variance; and Charles Spearman, for whom an alternative correlation coefficient is named, as well as an elegant statistical procedure based on correlation called factor analysis. To put it succinctly, it is difficult to overstate the impact that Pearson had on the evolution of statistical analysis.

A man of fierce independence, Pearson’s education at Cambridge centered in religion and philosophy rather than mathematics. As a student of religion, he sued the university over the compulsory chapel attendance required of all undergraduates. Winning his suit brought a change to university rules—after which Pearson chose to attend chapel. His graduate work (in Germany) emphasized literature, and it is a testimony to his extraordinary breadth of talent that his greatest contributions would be in statistical analysis. Pearson was a contemporary of Einstein, who sought a grand theory that would unite all of physics. Pearson tried to do the same with mathematics. That both men were disappointed in these efforts should not detract from what they did accomplish. Although Pearson’s associations with his colleagues were not always harmonious, he and the others who found an academic home in his department virtu- ally defined modern quantitative analysis. Whether or not they realize it, almost all of those who crunch numbers for any length of time rely on their work.

8.1 The Hypothesis of Association Previous chapters concentrated on tests of significant difference. The z test, the t tests, analy- sis of variance, and the repeated-measures designs test the differences between groups. They all fall under a general assumption referred to as the hypothesis of difference. But some kinds of analyses do not involve questions about whether there are significant differences between groups.

If a psychologist asks about the relationship between birth order and achievement motiva- tion among siblings or about the connection between the amount of time children read and their school grades, the subject of research concerns relationships rather than differences. Those questions call for procedures connected to the hypothesis of association, and when

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 228 3/3/16 12:33 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.1 The Hypothesis of Association

results are statistically significant, it means that the relationship, rather than the difference, is unlikely to be a random occurrence.

Correlation versus Cause Before pursuing correlation, researchers must make a distinction between correlation and cause. Because two characteristics co-vary, or vary together, that does not presume that one necessar- ily causes the other. Although there may be a causal relationship, researchers usually cannot determine one just by studying the correlation. One of the author’s statistics professors explained the risk of confusing correlation with cause this way: A person drinks for three successive nights. The first night, the drink is scotch and water, the second bourbon and water, and on the third, vodka and water. Each morn- ing after is accompanied by a hangover. Because the water is common to each experience, water must be the cause.

A classic study demonstrates, among other things, a correlation between the sale of ice cream by vendors on city streets and burglaries in the same city. Someone rushing to judgment about cause might wish to curb ice cream sales or check the criminal records of ice cream vendors to reduce the number of burglaries. Such an individual does not recognize that hot- ter weather—and the open windows that result—probably drive both ice cream sales and burglaries. It is not unusual for some third variable to explain an association between a first and a second. Although correlation values provide some evidence for causation, correlation alone is rarely sufficient to demonstrate cause.

Scatterplots Breaking down the word correlation—co-relation—makes its meaning clear: the variables are related. The evidence for the relationship is that the characteristics co-vary. As the level of one variable changes, the other changes as well because both variables contain some of the same information. The higher the correlation, the more common information they contain.

A researcher gathers verbal ability and intelligence scores for 12 subjects and presents them in Table 8.1. Note that the first participant has a verbal ability score of 20 and an intelligence score of 80. Scanning the two rows of data, we can see that as the values of one score increase, so do those of the other. In other words, there appears to be a positive correlation between the two scores. The relationship is easier to see in the scatterplot. A scatterplot is a graph plotting the values of one variable along the horizontal axis and the other variable along the vertical axis, using dots to indicate the intersection of each pair of values. Figure 8.1 shows an Excel-generated scatterplot of the verbal ability/ intelligence data.

Design Pics/Kelly Redinger/Thinkstock

As the classic study involving ice cream sales and burglaries shows us, it is important to make a distinction between correlation and cause.

Try It!: #1 How many raw scores does a single point on a scatterplot represent?

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 229 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.1 The Hypothesis of Association

Table 8.1: Results of a study comparing verbal ability and intelligence

Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Verbal ability: 20 35 42 48 55 60 63 66 72 76 78 85

Intelligence: 80 95 90 100 100 100 110 115 120 115 110 125

Figure 8.1: The relationship between verbal ability and intelligence

In the Figure 8.1 scatterplot, intelligence scores are plotted along the vertical, or y, axis and the verbal ability scores are plotted along the horizontal, or x, axis. Each diamond-shaped point in the graph, then, represents an intelligence score and a verbal ability score.

The plot verifies what our cursory view of the two rows of data in the table suggested: A posi- tive correlation exists between measures of intelligence and those of verbal ability. The gen- eral trend is from lower left to upper right. As the value of one variable increases, the value of the other tends to do likewise. The incline is not dramatic, but the graph shows a general rise in the data points.

Less-than-Perfect Relationships The relationship certainly is not perfect. The fourth, fifth, and sixth participants all have the same level of intelligence but different levels of verbal ability. The same is true of participants 8 and 10, as well as participants 7 and 11. Still, there is a general lower-left to upper-right relationship, which might be expected. Brighter people often have more complex language patterns, something suggested by higher verbal-ability scores.

It also is not surprising that the relationship between intelligence and verbal ability is less than perfect. An extensive vocabulary alone is no guarantee of an unusually high intelligence

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 230 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.1 The Hypothesis of Association

score. Perhaps the individual is just an avid reader. At the other end of the spectrum, not all highly intelligent people excel verbally.

The exceptions point to the fact that people are very complex. Human behavior is rarely explained by one or two variables. Although intelligence is related to verbal aptitude, so are a number of other variables: how much the individual reads, how easily the individual is dis- tracted, how much experience the person has had, and so on. One of the reasons researchers calculate correlation values is to determine the level of agreement when the relationships are not perfect, as they rarely are with people.

The issue the hypothesis of association seeks to resolve is not whether the relationship is perfect—because it would be extremely rare if it were—but rather, whether the relationship is statistically significant. Statistically significant correlations produce correlation values that tend to reemerge every time new data are gathered for the variables and the strength of the correlation re-calculated.

Although perfect correlations are rare when dealing with people, that is not necessarily the case elsewhere. Mathematicians, for example, enjoy the stability of perfect relationships; the formula for the area of a circle, A 5 πr2 (where the area is found by multiplying the value of pi by the square of the radius), works for circles of any size because a perfect relationship exists between a circle’s radius and its area.

Still, even imperfect correlations, such as those related to human-subjects research, can be very important. If health professionals know a correlation, even a weak one, exists between exposure to secondhand smoke and the later development of respiratory problems, they can warn against such exposure. In that particular instance, by the way, the research supports the causal assumption. If educators know there is a correlation between how much homework students do and their success on a high school exit exam, educators can encourage students to complete more assignments. The instructors expect that pass rates will rise as a consequence.

In the case of homework and exit exam scores, however, a causal relationship is not as clear. Perhaps people who have a higher level of academic achievement do more homework and have higher exit exam scores. That suggests the academic achievement is the causal element rather than the homework. Maybe the increased homework is the manifestation of that other variable, academic achievement, or perhaps parental involvement is the causal factor—stu- dents whose parents are directly involved in their schooling do more homework and prepare for their exit exams with greater care.

The Amount of Scatter The amount of scatter in a scatterplot, the degree to which the points in the scatterplot stray from a straight line, suggests weakness in the correlation. Scatterplots graphed for strong correlations have very little scatter. The points appear to line up.

What Correlations Provide Calculating a correlation involves quantifying the strength of the relationship between the variables involved. Correlation values, or coefficients, range from to 21.0 to 11.0. Correlation values of either 21.0 or 11.0 indicate perfect relationships. With positive correlations, as the

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 231 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.1 The Hypothesis of Association

value of one variable increases, so does the value of the other—more verbal reinforcement of subjects in a test of problem-solving ability is probably associated with more effort expended

by the subject. With negative correlations, as the value of one variable increases, the other decreases—more involvement with video-gaming while a text passage is read to subjects is probably associated with lower retention of the details of the text passage; as the value of one increases, the value of the other declines. A cor- relation of 0 indicates no relationship—fluctuations in the value of one variable are unrelated to changes in the value of the other. Values less than the absolute value of

1.0, but greater than 0, indicate imperfect relationships, with the strength of the relationship declining as the value approaches 0.

Correlating two variables does not require that they both measure the same characteristic or even that they both be gathered from the same subjects. Often, entirely different kinds of things are correlated. The example of secondhand smoke and respiratory issues involves two completely different variables, but the strength of the relationship between them can be calculated nevertheless. As long as the two variables can be quantified—reduced to a num- ber—the strength of any relationship can be determined.

Requirements for the Pearson Correlation Researchers may employ any of several different correlation procedures. The appropriate procedure for a particular problem is determined by characteristics such as the scale and normality of the data involved. The Pearson correlation, for example, requires variables of either interval or ratio scale. Nominal or ordinal scale data can be correlated as well, but they involve other correlation procedures. In addition to interval or ratio data, the Pearson corre- lation also requires the following:

• In their populations, the characteristics are assumed to be normally distrib- uted. Normal distributions can never be reflected in relatively small samples, but researchers must have reason to believe that the samples come from populations that are normal.

• The distributions from which the samples come must be similarly distributed. • The two samples are assumed to be randomly selected from their populations. • The relationship between the variables must be linear; it remains constant through-

out their ranges.

Recall that normality is indicated when the standard deviation is about one-sixth of the range, the measures of central tendency all have about the same value, and so on (Chapter 2). The way data are distributed in the scatterplot also suggests the normality of the two variables involved in a correlation. When both variables are normal, the points in the plot will be dis- tributed from left to right, with the frequency of the points gradually increasing toward the middle of the graph and then gradually decreasing to the right extreme. If the relationship is positive (example A in Figure 8.2), the scatter is generally from lower left to upper right. If it is negative (example B in Figure 8.2), the graph follows a pattern from upper left to lower right. If the variables have no correlation (example C in Figure 8.2), the points fall into a cir- cular pattern in the middle of the graph with the greatest density at the circle’s center. The

Try It!: #2 If two variables are normally distributed but uncorrelated, what pattern will their data points make in a scatterplot?

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 232 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

30

20

10

0 0 5 10 15

30

20

10

A. A positive Correlation

B. A negative Correlation

C. A Zero Correlation

0 0 42 86 10

5

15

10

5

0 0 5 10 15 20

Section 8.1 The Hypothesis of Association

greater frequency in the middle of the circle reflects the fact that most of the data in any normal distribution occur near the middle of the distribution. (The pattern in our example does not look circular because so few data are present.)

The similar-distribution requirement does not mean that the standard deviations should be the same. That is not likely to happen unless both variables are measured along the same range. It means that the standard devia- tions should account for similar proportions of their respective ranges.

The strength of a correlation is affected by range attenuation. When the range of scores in either variable is artificially abbreviated, the correlation value will be artificially low. Range attenuation can be indicated by a stan- dard deviation that is substantially smaller than we know it to be in the population. If we were correlating intelligence scores with reading comprehension, and the intelligence scores have a standard deviation of 8 points when we know that the population standard deviation is 15 points, we can expect any resulting correlation value to be artificially low. One of the advantages of random selection is that random samples of a reasonable size tend to mirror their populations reasonably well. Range restriction problems are much less likely to occur with randomly selected samples.

Linear and Nonlinear Correlations When the relationship between two variables is linear, it means that the degree to which they change in concert with each other is the same throughout their ranges; if it is low and posi- tive, it is low and positive at low levels of both variables and at higher levels of both variables.

Some correlations, however, are not linear. Consider the correlation between anxiety and the quality of a musician’s performance. In that instance, a little anxiety is probably a good thing. It prompts the individual to prepare for the performance by practicing, studying the music carefully, asking others for feedback, and so on. Without anxiety, the musician might not make the necessary preparations. It seems likely that, at least in the early going, the quality of the performance improves as anxiety increases.

But it is possible that if anxiety continues to increase, the individual’s performance may reach a plateau and then begin to diminish. The musician may become so anxious that concentra- tion is difficult and performance declines, with more anxiety actually depreciating the quality of the music. These conditions describe a relationship that is curvilinear. It is illustrated in Table 8.2, where anxiety is gauged as a function of someone’s increasing pulse rate in beats

Figure 8.2: Scatterplots for positive,

negative, and zero correlations

30

20

10

0 0 5 10 15

30

20

10

A. A positive Correlation

B. A negative Correlation

C. A Zero Correlation

0 0 42 86 10

5

15

10

5

0 0 5 10 15 20

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 233 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.1 The Hypothesis of Association

per minute. The quality of the musician’s performance is represented by the judgment of a trained observer, with higher values indicating a more virtuoso performance. If scores were awarded every 5 minutes during a 65-minute performance, the data are as follows:

Table 8.2: Study results of anxiety versus quality of a musician’s performance

Anxiety 52 54 58 62 64 67 72 73 75 78 82 86 88

Performance quality 3 5 6 6 8 8 9 7 5 5 4 3 1

Figure 8.3 shows the scatterplot illustrating the relationship between the musician’s anxiety and the quality of the musician’s performance.

Figure 8.3: The relationship between performance quality and anxiety

Try It!: #3 What impact does range attenuation have on a correlation?

Initially, there is a positive relationship between anxiety and the quality of the music. The first few pairs of data have points that rise from left to right. However, a positive relationship becomes negative when performance begins to diminish as anxiety increases. Viewed as a

whole, the correlation is curvilinear. After performance reaches the judge’s high of 9, more anxiety is not asso- ciated with better music.

The scatterplot also reveals some of the danger associ- ated with range restriction. If someone collects data so that only the first six pairs of scores were the sample,

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 234 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.1 The Hypothesis of Association

those scores provide very different indicators of the relationship between anxiety and perfor- mance than the last six pairs of scores. The first part of the distribution makes the relation- ship look linear and positive. The latter part of the data makes the relationship look linear but negative. An accurate picture of the relationship requires data throughout the entire ranges of the two variables.

Understanding Correlation Values It is important not to confuse the sign of the correlation (1 or 2) with its strength. A corre- lation of 20.50 contains the same amount of information about the two variables as does a correlation of 10.50. The sign makes a great deal of difference how the relationship is inter- preted, but it has nothing to do with the strength of the relationship. With positive correla- tions, as the value of one variable increases so does the value of the other. When correlations are negative, increasing values of one variable are associated with decreasing values of the other.

Earlier we noted that different scales of data require different types of correlation proce- dures. The number of variables involved also dictates the need for different correlation procedures:

• Bivariate correlations indicate the relationship between two variables. For exam- ple, the correlation between intelligence and verbal aptitude is a bivariate correla- tion. This chapter focuses on bivariate correlations.

• Multiple correlation gauges the relationship between one variable and a combina- tion of others. For example, the correlation between a combined reading compre- hension and vocabulary measure with an analytical-ability measure would indicate how well reading comprehension and vocabulary ability, combined, correlate with analytical ability.

• Canonical correlation measures the relationship between two groups of variables. For example, determining how a combination of reading comprehension and vocab- ulary ability and a combination of analytical ability and problem-solving ability relate calls for a canonical correlation.

• Partial correlation measures the relationship between two variables after neu- tralizing the influence of some third variable on both of the first two. For example, a correlation of analytical ability with problem-solving ability, with the influence of age controlled in both of the other variables, eliminates age differences as a factor in the resulting correlation. In effect, a partial correlation would be the correlation of analytical ability with problem-solving ability as if all subjects were the same age.

• Semipartial correlation gauges the relationship between two variables after neu- tralizing the influence of a third on either of the first two. For example, a correlation of intelligence with verbal aptitude, with age differences controlled in the verbal- aptitude variable, is a semipartial correlation. Age would not be controlled in the intelligence variable. (This makes some sense since intelligence is often argued to be a stable variable across age differences in the individual.)

Only the bivariate correlations are covered here. The others are beyond the scope of this book but are described here very simply, so that the reader has a sense of where bivariate correla- tions fit into the broader discussion of these procedures.

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 235 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.2 Calculating the Pearson Correlation

8.2 Calculating the Pearson Correlation Formally called the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, the Pearson correlation, or—because its symbol is typically a lowercase r—“Pearson’s r,” is probably the most often calculated of any correlation value. Thumbing through statistics books and glancing at online sources reveals several formulas. All provide the same answer, but some are easier to com- plete than others. Visually, at least, Formula 8.1 is probably simplest:

Formula 8.1

rxy 5 ∑[(zx)(zy)]

n 2 1

Note that the r symbol has x and y subscripts. These indicate that the procedure correlates two variables designated x and y. Which variable is assigned x and which y is unimportant, since correlation does not presume that the x variable causes y, for example. Formula 8.1 indicates that if the x and y scores are transformed into z scores (Formula 3.1: z 5 x 2 Ms ), the value of rxy, (the correlation value) is the sum of the products of the x and yz scores for each participant, divided by the number of participants in the data group (rather than the number of scores), minus 1.

The n 2 1 signifies that this is a correlation formula for sample, rather than population, data. It is the same adjustment for sample data made with the standard deviation calculation in Chapter 1. Formula 8.1 can be used to calculate the correlation value of the verbal ability and intelligence scores from the earlier example. Calculating the equivalent verbal-ability and intelligence z values with Formula 3.1 produces the z values for the original raw scores listed in Table 8.3.

Here, each pair of z scores is multiplied and the products summed:

(21.991 3 21.902) 1 (21.212 3 20.761) 1 . . . 1 (1.385 3 1.522) 5 10.313

This provides the numerator to be used in the formula

rxy 5 ∑[(zx)(zy)]

n 2 1

Then, for the denominator, n (the number of pairs of scores) 5 12, so n 2 1 5 11. Therefore, substituting these values into the above equation gives

rxy 5 10.313

11 5 0.938

Table 8.3: z values

Verbal ability (x)

21.991 21.212 20.848 20.537 20.173 0.087 0.242 0.398 0.710 0.917 1.021 1.385

Intelli- gence (y)

21.902 20.761 21.141 20.380 20.380 20.380 0.380 0.761 1.141 0.761 0.380 1.522

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 236 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.2 Calculating the Pearson Correlation

With a maximum possible correlation value of 1.0, rxy 5 0.938 indicates a strong relationship between verbal ability and intelligence, something that is reflected in the fact that many intel- ligence tests include subtests of verbal ability.

Although Formula 8.1 is visually simple, the need to transform everything into z scores before calculating rxy makes the calculations very time consuming and tedious. Completing the cal- culations by hand takes too much time. Formula 8.2, the formula we will use, turns out to be the formula programmed into many hand-calculators. It is visually more complex but much easier to execute:

Formula 8.2

rxy 5 n∑xy 2 (∑x)(∑y)

Î {[n∑x2 2 (∑x)2][n∑y2 2 (∑y)2]} where

x 5 one of the scores in each pair as above in the z score formula.

y 5 the other score in the pair.

n 5 the number of participants (the number of pairs of scores).

∑xy indicates that each pair of scores is multiplied and then the products for each pair summed. The resulting value is the “sum of the cross-products.”

∑x2 indicates that each x score is squared, and then the squares summed.

(∑x)2 indicates that the original x scores are totaled, and then the total is squared.

∑y2 indicates that each y score is squared, and then the squares summed.

(∑y)2 indicates that the original y scores are totaled, and then the total is squared.

The formula is not as daunting as it appears. The process will become familiar after a few problems. Probably Excel or a hand-calculator with a built-in correlation function will perform most of the statis- tical “heavy-lifting,” but it is helpful to prepare for that occasional time when there is no computer and the calculator has no correlation function.

A Correlation Example A researcher is duplicating a classic experiment by psychologist E. L. Thorndike. The experiment relates to Thorndike’s Law of Effect, which maintains that behaviors followed by a satisfying state of affairs will likely be repeated. In the experiment, the researcher sets up a cage equipped with a door that opens if a cat placed in the cage bats a string suspended inside

iStockphoto/ Thinkstock

Thorndike’s Law of Effect maintains that behaviors followed by satisfaction are likely to be repeated. A hungry cat will learn to bat a suspended string if that action is followed by food.

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 237 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.2 Calculating the Pearson Correlation

the cage. According to the law of effect, if batting the string is followed by something satisfying, that behavior should occur more frequently in future trials than other behaviors. A hungry cat is placed in the cage and food placed outside where it is inaccessible from the inside of the cage. Data comprise the several trials and the elapsed time, in minutes, before the cat releases itself. This experiment is repeated 10 times over as many days. Table 8.4 lists the data.

Table 8.4: Experimental results from cat behavioral study

Trial number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Elapsed time 5.0 5.5 4.75 4.5 4.25 3.5 2.75 2.0 1.0 0.25

Figure 8.4 shows the scatterplot for these data, which suggests that the relationship is prob- ably negative and quite strong.

Figure 8.4: The relationship between number of trials and elapsed time

The correlation value checks both conclusions. To determine the correlation, we use Formula 8.2:

rxy 5 n∑xy 2 (∑x)(∑y)

Î {[n∑x2 2 (∑x)2][n∑y2 2 (∑y)2]}

The number of trials (n) 5 10. The researcher can then verify that

∑xy 5 137.25

∑x2 5 385

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 238 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.2 Calculating the Pearson Correlation

(∑x)2 5 (55)2

∑y2 5 141

(∑y)2 5 (33.5)2

Substituting the relevant values gives

rxy 5 10(137.15) 2 (55)(33.5)

Î {[10(385) 2 (55)2][10(141) 2 (33.5)2]}

5 1372.5 2 1842.5

Î [(3850 2 (3025)][(1410 2 1122.25]

5 2470

Î (825 3 287.75) 5 20.965

Interpreting Results The relationship is indeed negative and because the maximum correlation is 61.0, the rela- tionship is also very strong. Neither of those conclusions indicates whether the result is sta- tistically significant, however. As with z, t, and F, significance is determined by comparing the calculated value to the table value indicated by the relevant degrees of freedom and the selected level of probability. A calculated correlation value for which the absolute value is as large is one that probably did not occur by chance. For the Pearson correlation, the values are in Table 8.5 (see also Table B.5 in Appendix B).

Like the t and F values, the correct critical value for r is determined by degrees of freedom and by the level of probability the researcher selects. The degrees of freedom for a Pearson correlation are the number of pairs of data, minus 2. Be careful not to confuse the number of pairs with the number of scores.

The probability values in Table 8.5 indicate the absolute value that the calculated rxy must reach to be confident that the correlation did not occur by chance. The level of confidence in that conclusion is indicated by the columns for p 5 0.1, p 5 0.05, and p 5 0.01. To have some practice interpreting the values, note the following:

• If a correlation were calculated for n 5 7 pairs of data (which means that df 5 5) and the result was rxy 5 1/2 0.669, there is 1 chance in 10, or in other words p 5 0.1, that the correlation occurred by chance. A chance, or random, correlation means that if new data were collected and the rxy value calculated a second time, it would probably be less than the table value.

• If the researcher wants more assurance against a random correlation, rxy 5 1/2 0.754 (also with 5 degrees of freedom) will occur by chance just 5 times in 100 (p 5 0.05) and rxy 5 1/2 0.875 will occur by chance just 1 time in 100 (p 5 0.01).

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 239 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.2 Calculating the Pearson Correlation

Researchers most commonly settle on p 5 0.05 or 0.01. The p 5 0.1 occurs in statistical tables less often because in most research settings, a one-in-ten chance of a random correlation is too great. No one wants to conclude that a correlation is not statistically significant when there is too much chance that the finding will not hold up under further investigation. In exploratory or descriptive research when there is little prior research on which to rely, how- ever, sometimes investigators will relax the probability to p 5 0.1.

Table 8.5: The critical values of rxy

Number of xy pairs (n) df (n 2 2)

Lowest statistically significant correlation for the specified probability

p 5 0.10 p 5 0.05 p 5 0.01

3 1 0.988 0.997 1.000

4 2 0.900 0.950 0.990

5 3 0.805 0.878 0.959

6 4 0.729 0.811 0.917

7 5 0.669 0.754 0.875

8 6 0.621 0.707 0.834

9 7 0.582 0.666 0.798

10 8 0.549 0.632 0.765

11 9 0.521 0.602 0.735

12 10 0.497 0.576 0.708

13 11 0.476 0.553 0.684

14 12 0.458 0.532 0.661

15 13 0.441 0.514 0.641

16 14 0.426 0.497 0.623

17 15 0.412 0.482 0.606

18 16 0.400 0.468 0.590

19 17 0.389 0.456 0.575

20 18 0.378 0.444 0.561

21 19 0.369 0.433 0.549

22 20 0.360 0.423 0.537

23 21 0.352 0.413 0.526

24 22 0.344 0.404 0.515

25 23 0.337 0.396 0.505

Source: Brighton Webs Ltd. (2006). Critical values of correlation coefficient (R). Statistics for Energy and the Environment. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20110117193722/http://www.brighton-webs.co.uk/tables/critical_values_r.asp

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 240 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.2 Calculating the Pearson Correlation

The Relationship Between Degrees of Freedom and Significance Even with a correlation value as extreme as 20.965, checking the table for significance is important. In both the t test and ANOVA, the magnitude of the critical values declines as degrees of freedom (and sample size) increase. It is the same with correlation, but here the decline in critical values is more dramatic. Note from the table, for example, that if n 5 3 (and therefore df 5 1), the correlation would need to be at least rxy 5 0.997 (nearly perfect) to be statistically significant. The related point is that with only three pairs of data, the potential for a random relationship that looks significant is very high. At the other extreme, if n 5 25 (so that df 5 23), a correlation of just rxy= 0.396 is statistically significant. That much data bears a much lower potential for an accidental (random) relationship.

The Statistical Hypotheses The null and alternate hypotheses for correlation reflect the fact that we have moved away from the hypothesis of difference. The null hypothesis is that no relationship between the variables exists. Symbolically, it is written: H0: ρ 5 0.

The symbol ρ is the Greek letter rho (as in “row” your boat) and the equivalent of r. So the null hypothesis states that the correlation (r) equals 0. More specifically, it means that there is no statistically significant relationship. The alternate hypothesis states that the correlation does not equal 0, that a statistically significant relationship will emerge each time data are collected and the relationship calculated: HA: ρ ? 0.

The Coefficient of Determination One of our important recurring themes is the distinction between statistical significance and practical importance. Determining practical importance was the reason for omega-squared and eta-squared calculations for significant t test and ANOVA results, respectively.

Effect sizes take on particular importance with correlation because with large samples, rela- tively small correlations can be statistically significant. The effect size corresponding to the Pearson correlation is the coefficient of determination (rxy2). As the notation suggests, the coefficient of determination is the square of the correlation coefficient. Squaring the correla- tion indicates how much of the variance in y is explained by x (or vice versa since correlation does not assume cause).

In the problem about number of trials and elapsed time, rxy 5 20.965 so rxy2 5 0.931.

For that problem, the coefficient of determination is interpreted this way: the number of tri- als can explain about 93% of the variance in time elapsed, which would be a very important finding with implications for many kinds of performance tasks, except that the numbers were contrived.

The Interpretive Value of rxy2

The coefficient of determination can also indicate how unimportant some low correlations are, even when they are statistically significant. For example, with 23 degrees of freedom, a correlation of rxy 5 0.396 is statistically significant. The coefficient of determination for that

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 241 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.2 Calculating the Pearson Correlation

value is rxy2 5 0.157. One variable in such a relationship explains just 16% of the variance in the other. The other 84% of the variability is related to other factors.

When the variables describe the behavior of people, small coefficients of determination do not surprise us because they are part of human subjects’ complexity. Very few individual vari- ables will explain large proportions of human behavior.

Sometimes, however, even low correlations and low rxy2 values are important. If research revealed that the correlation between the age of first exposure to illegal narcotics and the development of an addiction was rxy 5 20.3, that value (note the negative correlation) indi- cates that the younger subjects are at first exposure, the more likely they are to develop an addiction. The resulting rxy2 value would be just 0.09. But even if just 9% of the variance in addiction is explained by age at first exposure, within the context of human complexity that would be considered important. Practical importance is a function of consequences.

Comparing Correlation Values In isolation, correlation coefficients can be difficult to interpret because correlation strength does not increase or decrease in consistent increments. The change from rxy 5 0.2 to rxy 5 0.3 is a less dramatic increase in strength than the increase from rxy 5 0.75 to rxy 5 0.85, for example. Although the Pearson r requires equal interval data, in the coefficients that are the result, an increase in correlation strength of 0.1 reflects a very different change from 0.8 to 0.9 than it does from 0.2 to 0.3. It takes a much stronger increase in the relation- ship to increase by 0.1 in the upper ranges of correlation values than in the lower ranges, something suggested by the distance between tenths in this number line:

rxy 5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Squaring the correlation coefficient makes the intervals consistent. A change in the coefficient of determination from 0.35 to 0.5, for example, represents the same increase in proportion of variance explained as an increase from 0.7 to 0.85, as the line suggests: r2xy 5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9.

Another Correlation Problem A foundation interested in what prompts contributions to charitable causes retains a consul- tant. Noting that age varies with donation, the consultant gathers the data in Table 8.6 and generates the values in Problem 8.1.

Table 8.6: Data on charity donations

Donor: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Age: 25 27 32 32 35 38 43 45 45 47 48 52 63 65 66

Amount: 20 20 35 25 100 50 75 45 100 150 100 200 50 100 125

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 242 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.2 Calculating the Pearson Correlation

Problem 8.1: The Pearson correlation for contributor’s age and contribution amount

Donor’s age Contribution amount

x x2 y y2 xy

25 625 20 400 500 27 729 20 400 540 32 1,024 35 1,225 1,120 32 1,024 25 625 800 35 1,225 100 10,000 3,500 38 1,444 50 2,500 1,900 43 1,849 75 5,625 3,225 45 2,025 45 2,025 2,025 45 2,025 100 10,000 4,500 47 2,209 150 22,500 7,050 48 2,304 100 10,000 4,800 52 4,704 200 40,000 10,400 63 3,969 50 2,500 3,150 65 4,225 100 10,000 6,500 66 4,356 125 15,625 8,250

∑x 5 663 ∑x2 5 31,737 ∑y 5 1,195 ∑y2 5 133,425 ∑xy 5 58,260

The correlation of the donor’s age and the contribution amount is calculated as follows:

rxy 5 n∑xy 2 (∑x)(∑y)

Î {[n∑x2 2 (∑x)2][n∑y2 2 (∑y)2]}

5 15(58,260) 2 (663)(1,195)

Î {[15(31,737) 2 (663)2][15(133,425) 2 1,1952]}

5 81,615

Î [(36,486)(573,350)]

5 0.564

• The critical value at p 5 0.05 and 13 df (r0.05(13)) is 0.514. • Because rxy . r0.05(13), the correlation is statistically significant. • The coefficient of determination (rxy2) 5 0.318, which indicates that age can explain

about 32% of the variability in donation amount.

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 243 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.3 Correlating Data When One Variable Is Dichotomous

Problem 8.1 suggests some of the hazard in rushing to judgment about cause from correlation data. While we might be tempted to reduce the problem to “older people contribute more to charity than younger peo- ple,” other factors are probably at work, not the least of which is that age likely correlates with income as well. Perhaps it is not age that explains contribution amount so much as income. The correlation value,

while instructive and important, indicates only how variables co-vary, not necessarily why the variables involved vary.

8.3 Correlating Data When One Variable Is Dichotomous If the consultant had asked how the donation amount and the donor’s gender relate, Pear- son still provides the answer, but the procedure becomes a point-biserial correlation. The word point refers to the continuous variable, the amount of money donated in this exam- ple. The word biserial refers to the other variable, which has only two levels. The required change is coding the gender variable in a way that reflects its dichotomy: as either 0 or 1. Which of females or males are coded 0 and which 1 will not affect the strength of the coefficient.

The point-biserial correlation has a number of applications. Questions about the relation- ship between marital status and income, between public versus private school students and achievement, or between Republicans’ and Democrats’ optimism are all questions that could be analyzed with point-biserial correlation.

In point-biserial correlations, which level is coded 0 and which 1 affects only the sign of the coefficient. We will need to be careful when interpreting the result. If donors 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, and 14 are female, and if females are coded 1 and males 0, the research obtains the data in Table 8.7.

Table 8.7: Data on charity donations by donor type (gender)

Donor (x) 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

Amount (y) 20 20 35 25 100 50 75 45 100 150 100 200 50 100 125

Calculating the Point-Biserial Correlation The amounts donated (the y values) remain the same from the age/donor problem (Problem 8.1, where ∑y 5 1,195 and ∑y2 5 133,425). The other values must be recalculated, although that task becomes much simpler with gender (x) recoded to 1s and 0s. Table 8.8 lists those results.

Try It!: #4 What is the relationship between degrees of freedom and statistical significance in correlation?

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 244 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.3 Correlating Data When One Variable Is Dichotomous

Table 8.8: Point-biserial correlation results

Gender (x) x2 Amount (y) y2 xy

0 0 20 400 0 0 0 20 400 0 1 1 35 1,225 35 0 0 25 625 0 1 1 100 10,000 100 1 1 50 2,500 50 1 1 75 5,625 75 0 0 45 2,025 0 1 1 100 10,000 100 1 1 150 22,500 150 1 1 100 10,000 100 0 0 200 40,000 0 0 0 50 2,500 0 1 1 100 10,000 100 0 0 125 15,625 0

∑x58 ∑x258 ∑y51,195 ∑y2=133,425 ∑xy5710

Return to Formula 8.2, in which

rxy 5 n∑xy 2 (∑x)(∑y)

Î {[n∑x2 2 (∑x)2][n∑y2 2 (∑y)2]}

Substituting in the values from Table 8.8 gives

rxy 5 15(710) 2 (8)(1.195)

Î {[15(8) 2 (8)2][15(133,425) 2 (1,195)2]} 5 0.19

Still testing at p 5 0.05 and with the degrees of freedom still df 5 13, from Table 8.5 the criti- cal value is still rxy0.05(13) 5 0.514. Therefore the statistical decision will be to fail to reject H0. The relationship between the donor’s gender and the amount contributed is not statistically significant. The rxy 5 0.19 result is probably a random correlation that is unlikely to reach the critical value from the table in any new analysis with new subjects.

The interpretation of the point-biserial correlation is the same as it is for conventional Pear- son correlations, except that sign of the coefficient is a function only of which variable is coded 1. If male donors had been coded with 1s, the correlation would have been negative, rxy 5 20.19. Consider a few more applications for the point-biserial correlation:

• What is the relationship between whether or not a parent earned a college degree and the child’s grades?

• How is whether or not a student is a native speaker of English related to the student’s test score?

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 245 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.4 The Pearson Correlation in Excel

• What is the correlation between blue-collar/white-collar jobs and the amount of leisure time?

If both variables are dichotomous, another bivariate correlation is involved. It is called the phi coefficient, discussed in Chapter 10.

Degrees of Significance? At rxy 5 0.19 and a table value of rxy0.05(13) 5 0.514, the correlation value is not significant. If the value had been rxy 5 0.50, and this correlation value represented some relationship calculated for your senior thesis, would it be appropriate to refer to it as “almost significant” or “nearly significant”? It is not uncommon to see such qualifiers even in the published lit- erature, but significance decisions should be treated the same way as dichotomous variables. Only two outcomes are possible: The correlation is significant or it is not significant. To try to make a statement about the nearness to an alternative outcome undermines the principle behind significance testing. Only two hypotheses for significance exist, and the outcome is couched in terms of one or the other.

8.4 The Pearson Correlation in Excel A psychologist is interested in determining the relationship between risk-taking and success solving novel problems. Having devised the Inventory Risk Survey Catalog (the I-RiSC), the psychologist gauges the willingness of a group of 16-year-olds to do the unconventional and then provides a series of word problems with which the participants are unfamiliar. Scores on the I-RiSC and the problems for 10 participants are listed in Table 8.9.

Table 8.9: Risk-taking and problem-solving success data

I-RiSC: 2 7 4 5 1 8 7 9 3 6

Problems: 14 17 14 16 12 17 16 17 15 15

To complete the problem in Excel, it is best to set up the data in two columns. Two rows also will work, but parallel columns are visually simpler.

1. Create a label in cell A1 for “I-RiSC” and in cell B1 “ProbSolv” so that

the I-RiSC data appear in cells A2 to A11 and the ProbSolv data appear in B2 to B11.

2. From the Home tab at the top of the page click Data, and then Data Analysis at the far right.

3. Select Correlation, which is the second option in the window. 4. In the Input Range window enter A2:B11, which indicates the cells where the data

are found. Note that the default groups the data in columns. (Change the default if entering the data in rows.) Had the “Labels in First Row” box been checked, Excel would have treated the first row in each column (A2 and B2 because that is what is

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 246 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.4 The Pearson Correlation in Excel

designated) as labels rather than data. Our adjustment for the labels was made by indicating that the data begin in A2 rather than A1.

5. Enter a cell value below or to the right of the last data entry for the Output Range so that the results do not overwrite the scores—either cell A12 or below, or to the right of column B.

6. Click OK.

The results appear in a box called a correlation matrix (see Table 8.10). The intersection of column 1 and column 2 indicates how well the data in column 1 (the Excel A column, where I-RiSC data are located) correlate with the data in column 2 (the Excel B column, which con- tains the problem-solving scores).

Table 8.10: Correlation matrix

Column 1 Column 2

Column 1 1 0.904203 Column 2 0.904203 1

The result of the analysis is a Pearson correlation of rxy 5 0.904. The 1s in the diagonal indi- cate that each variable correlates perfectly with itself (rxy 5 1.0), of course. Note that the output does not indicate whether the calculated value is statistically significant, which makes a check of the critical values table necessary. Table 8.5 indicates that rxy0.05(8) 5 0.632. The relationship between risk-taking and problem solving is statistically significant. Were these data not contrived, it would be quite important to know that about 82% (rxy2 5 0.818) of problem-solving success (0.9042) is explained by whatever the I-RiSC measures, ostensibly the subject’s willingness to be unconventional.

Apply It! Investigating the Correlation

between Crime and Unemployment A law enforcement analyst is interested in any link between crime and unemployment as a guide to allocat- ing crime-prevention funds. Specifically, she would like to know whether murders and property crimes correlate with the unemployment rate.

The analyst obtains the murder and property-crime rates for her state for the 16 years from 1990 to 2005 from the FBI Uniform Crime Reports (rates are per 100,000 inhabitants). She then consults the Bureau of Labor Sta- tistics for the unemployment rate in the state for the same period. The analyst will compute the Pearson cor- relation between murder rate and unemployment and then between property-crime rate and unemployment. Table 8.11 shows the data.

Digital Vision/Photodisc/Thinkstock

(continued)

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 247 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.4 The Pearson Correlation in Excel

(continued)

Table 8.11: Murder rate, property crime, and unemployment

Year Murder rate

(per 100,000 people) Property crime rate

(per 100,000 people) Unemployment

percentage

1990 7.1 4462 5.6 1991 6.7 5092 6.8 1992 6.4 4801 7.5 1993 6.4 4662 6.9 1994 6.2 4678 6.1 1995 5.7 4460 5.6 1996 5.8 4438 5.4 1997 5.4 4279 4.9 1998 6.1 4040 4.5 1999 5.5 3852 4.2 2000 5.1 3592 4.0 2001 4.9 3456 4.7 2002 4.3 3412 5.8 2003 4.2 3289 6.0 2004 4.7 3168 5.5 2005 5.0 3081 5.1

The Excel results indicate the following:

• The correlation between murder rate and unemployment is rxy 5 0.386. • Comparing the murder rate/unemployment rate correlation to the critical value from

Table 8.5 (rxy0.05(14) 5 0.497) indicates that the calculated correlation is not statistically significant at p 5 0.05.

• The analyst fails to reject the null hypothesis, ρ 5 0.

• The property crimes rate and unemployment correlation is rxy 5 0.551. • Comparing the calculated value to the critical value from Table 8.5 (the same

rxy0.05(14) 5 0.497, since df are unchanged) indicates that this correlation is statistically significant at p 5 0.05.

• The analyst rejects the null hypothesis, ρ 5 0. • The coefficient of determination for this relationship is rxy2 5 0.55122 5 0.303. About 30%

of the variance in the property crime rate can be explained by the unemployment rate.

Although the rxy2 indicates that about 30% of property crime is explained by variations in unemployment, the analyst will want to be careful about making the conceptual leap to a causal conclusion. “Explained by” isn’t the same as “caused by.” To reiterate the point, per- haps something else explains both crime rate and unemployment. Perhaps underfunded pub- lic schooling prompts an unusually high dropout rate from school. The consequently under- educated population has more difficulty securing stable unemployment. Perhaps state budget cuts have been disproportionately imposed on police agencies, and with fewer officers on the street, crime rises. In other words, the simplest explanation might not be the most accurate. A statistically significant correlation is not where the analysis ends.

Apply It! boxes written by Shawn Murphy

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 248 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.5 Spearman’s Rho

8.5 Spearman’s Rho The Pearson correlation requires that both variables must be at least interval scale. The point- biserial correlation requires that one variable must be at least interval scale, and the other must be a variable with only two levels.

Neither of these correlations is helpful when the data are ordinal scale, which describes much of the data that psychologists and other social scientists encounter. Nearly everyone who goes to the mall or answers the telephone has been asked to take a survey, particularly if it hap- pens to be an election year. Survey data are usually ordinal scale. It is common for the ques- tionnaires to have a Likert-type format, where a statement is read and the respondents are asked the degree to which they agree with the statement by selecting from a range of choices such as:

• Strongly agree • Agree • Neither agree nor disagree • Disagree • Strongly disagree

Although surveyors commonly code the responses (strongly agree 5 1, agree 5 2 and so on) and then calculate means and standard deviations for all respondents, those statistics assume that the data are at least interval scale. Survey data rarely are. The Likert types of responses are essentially rankings. A response of “strongly agree” is more positive than “agree” but precisely how much more is not clear. Besides, one respondent’s “disagree” may be another respondent’s “strongly disagree.” These data are more safely treated as ordinal scale responses.

Correlating Ordinal, or Mixed Ordinal/Interval Data In addition to survey data, ordinal scale characterizes other common data, such as class rank- ings and percentile scores. Sometimes the variables investigators might wish to correlate have mixed scales. For example, a researcher wants to correlate subjects’ income (ratio scale data) with their optimism (usually gauged with a Likert-type survey and so ordinal scale). Along with the ordinal variable, the income variable is often not normally distributed. The lack of normality in both the ratio variable and the ordinal scale variable rules out a Pearson’s correlation.

Charles Spearman, Pearson’s colleague at University College London, developed a tremen- dously flexible correlation procedure. It accommodates two variables in a correlation proce- dure, provided the variables fit any of the following:

• Both are ordinal scale. • One variable is ordinal scale and one is interval or ratio scale. • Two variables are interval or ratio scale, but one or both fail to meet the Pearson

correlation requirement for normality.

The procedure is Spearman’s rho, symbolized by ρ. Spearman’s rho is a nonparametric procedure, which means that it makes no assumptions about parameters; it means that ρ will

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 249 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.5 Spearman’s Rho

accommodate data when there are reasons to suspect that the data are not normally distrib- uted. The formula, which requires that the scores for each variable be independently ranked, is as follows:

Formula 8.3

ρ 5 1 2 6∑d2

n(n2 2 1) where

d 5 the difference between the rankings for the two variables

n 5 the number of pairs of data

The formula’s 1s and 6 are constant values, used every time a Spearman’s correlation is calculated.

Following are the steps to calculating a Spearman’s rho:

1. Rank the scores for both variables separately. 2. For each pair of rankings, subtract the second ranking in the pair from the first to

produce a difference score, d. 3. Square each of the d values for d2. 4. Sum the d2 values for ∑d2. 5. Solve for ρ.

Ranking Tied Scores The ranking procedure must follow rules. If some of the scores for one of the variables have multiples, all must receive the same ranking. If someone were ranking the following values, for example:

3, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 10

ranking the values from smallest to largest produces the following values:

1, 2, 3.5, 3.5, 5, 7, 7, 7, 9, 10.

The smallest value, 3, was ranked “1,” the 5 was ranked “2,” and so on. The two 6s and the three 8s were handled as follows:

• Because the two 6s are rankings 3 and 4, those two values are added and divided by the number of them (2), which results in 3.5 ([3 1 4] 4 2). After both 6s are ranked 3.5 (for places 3 and 4) the next value in the data set, 7, is ranked 5.

• The 8s are all ranked 7 ([6 1 7 1 8] 4 3), after which the next value, the 9, is ranked 9.

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 250 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.5 Spearman’s Rho

An Example Suppose the data ranked above measure emotional sta- bility, a variable thought to correlate negatively with stress. If those data are collected for career military ser- vice personnel assigned to combat areas, and age data are added for 10 subjects, Table 8.12 might be the result.

Table 8.12: Emotional stability and age data

Emotional stability Age

3 26

5 25

6 32

6 35

7 35

8 34

8 37

8 40

9 42

10 39

Calculations for a Spearman’s rho solution, based on the information in Problem 8.1, give

ρ 5 1 2 6∑d2

n(n2 2 1)

5 1 2 6(24.5)

10(102 2 1)

5 0.852

Table 8.13 lists the critical values for Spearman’s rho (Table B.6 in Appendix B). There are no degrees of freedom for this procedure. The correct critical value for rho is indicated by the number of data pairs. Note that for p 5 0.05 and 10 pairs ρ.05(10) 5 0.648. The relationship between emotional stability and age among service personnel assigned to combat zones is statistically significant; therefore, we reject H0.

Try It!: #5 Spearman’s rho requires data of what scale?

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 251 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.5 Spearman’s Rho

Table 8.13: The critical values for Spearman’s rho

Number of pairs of scores p 5 0.05 p 5 0.01

5 1.0 6 0.886 1.0 7 0.786 0.929 8 0.738 0.881 9 0.683 0.883 10 0.648 0.794 12 0.591 0.777 14 0.544 0.715 16 0.506 0.665 18 0.475 0.625 20 0.450 0.591 22 0.428 0.562 24 0.409 0.537 26 0.392 0.515 28 0.377 0.496 30 0.364 0.478

Source: University of Sussex. (n.d.). Critical values of Spearman’s rho (two-tailed). Retrieved from www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/grahamh/RM1web/Rhotable.htm

Problem 8.2: The Spearman’s rho correlation: emotional stability and age among service personnel

1. Ranking the scores produces ρ1 for emotional stability and ρ2 for age. 2. The d score is the difference between the two rankings. 3. The square of the difference score is d2.

Emotional stability Age ρ1 ρ2 d(ρ1 2 ρ2) d2

3 26 1 2 21 1

5 25 2 1 1 1 6 32 3.5 3 0.5 0.25 6 35 3.5 5.5 22 4

7 35 5 5.5 20.5 0.25

8 34 7 4 3 9 8 37 7 7 0 0 8 40 7 9 22 4

9 42 9 10 21 1

10 39 10 8 2 4

∑d2 5 24.50

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 252 3/3/16 12:34 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.5 Spearman’s Rho

Apply It! Exploring the Correlation between

Job Satisfaction and Commute Times As part of the justification for allowing workers to work at home part-time, the human resources director for a large firm intends to investigate any correlation between job satisfaction and average commute time for employees. The director asks ten randomly selected employees to fill out a job-satisfaction questionnaire with the following responses to a series of questions:

Response Score

• very satisfied (vs) 1 • somewhat satisfied (ss) 2 • somewhat dissatisfied (sd) 3 • very dissatisfied (vd) 4

The employees were also asked to indicate their average one-way commute time in minutes. Recognizing that job satisfaction responses will be ordinal scale, the HR director opts for Spearman’s rho. The data and the difference scores are shown in Table 8.14.

Table 8.14: Spearman’s rho data for the correlation between job satisfaction and commute time

Commute time (minutes)

Commute rank

Job satisfaction total

Satisfaction rank Difference

Difference squared

2 1 10 2 21 1

7 2 14 5 23 9

11 3 10 2 1 1 15 4 14 5 21 1

17 5 10 2 3 9 23 6 14 5 1 1 28 7 17 7.5 20.5 0.25

32 8 22 9.5 21.5 2.25

36 9 22 9.5 20.5 0.25

40 10 17 7.5 2.5 6.25

From the table, the sum of the differences is

∑d2 5 1 1 9 1 1 1 1 1 9 11 1 0.25 1 2.25 1 0.25 1 6.25 5 31

Digital Vision/Photodisc/Thinkstock

(continued)

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 253 3/3/16 12:35 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Section 8.5 Spearman’s Rho

Direction of the Ranking In the study of emotional stability and age for service personnel, the least stable value received the ranking of 1, and the most stable a ranking of 10, while the young- est subject received the age ranking of 1. In terms of the value of the statistic, it would not have mattered whether the rankings go from lowest to highest, or from highest to lowest, as long as both variables are ranked the same way. We could have ranked the most emotionally stable 1 and the oldest 1, and the coeffi-

cient would have come out the same. If we reversed just one of them, however, the correlation would appear to be negative.

Summary of Spearman’s Rho Spearman’s correlation provides flexibility to the analyst. As long as some evidence of a rela- tionship exists, correlations can be calculated for any combination of ordinal, interval, and ratio variables. But of course so much latitude requires some sacrifice, and it is statistical power. In the course of ranking values, the amount of difference between any two data points is lost. When the ages of the service personnel were ranked,

• the 25-year-old was 1, • the 26-year-old was 2, • and the 32-year-old was 3.

Once ranked, the fact that from the first to the second ranking is a one-year difference and from the second to the third ranking is a six-year difference is lost. Pearson’s r retains those

(continued)

For n 5 10, the Spearman’s rho formula is

ρ 5 1 2 6∑d2

n(n2 2 1)

5 1 2 6(31)

10(102 2 1)

5 0.812

For rs 5 0.05 and 10 pairs of data, the critical value is rs0.05(10) 5 0.648. The relationship between job satisfaction and average commute time is statistically significant. Those who commute the least time have the highest levels of job satisfaction. Perhaps the attitudes of those who have the lowest levels of job satisfaction—those who have the longest commutes—will improve if they are required to commute less often because they can sometimes work from home.

Apply It! boxes written by Shawn Murphy

Try It!: #6 For 10 students, grade averages and rank in class are correlated. How will the result- ing coefficient be affected if the highest ranked student is given the lowest value (1) versus the highest value (10)?

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 254 3/3/16 12:35 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Summary and Resources

differences. When both correlations are calculated for the same data, their coefficients usu- ally have little difference, but a Pearson correlation will sometimes be statistically signifi- cant when Spearman’s is not. Note the comparison of critical values at p 5 0.05 shown in Table 8.15.

Table 8.15: Comparison of Pearson and Spearman critical values

No. pairs Pearson critical value* Spearman critical value

5 0.878 1.000

6 0.811 0.886

10 0.632 0.648

*for df =number of pairs, 22

In the examples above, the value required for significance with a Spearman correlation is higher than that required for a Pearson correlation.

Another limitation of the Spearman correlation is that we cannot square the Spearman value to determine the proportion of variance in y explained by x. Spearman’s rho has no equivalent of rxy2. When the data do not meet the Pearson requirements, however, the researcher has no choice. When the data do meet the requirements, a Pearson’s r is usually preferable to Spear- man’s rho.

Correlation in Research Correlation procedures answer enough of the questions that interest researchers and con- sumers of research that the procedures pervade research literature. Arroyo (2015) exam- ined the correlation between work engagement and internal self-concept. Arroyo found that people tend to engage in the work they do to earn a living, not for the external rewards, but for the work’s own sake; their work is intrinsically satisfying.

Ceci and Kumar (2015), meanwhile, asked whether happiness correlates with creative capac- ity. They found no significant correlation but did find a significant correlation between cre- ative capacity and intrinsic motivation, suggesting that those with the greatest creative capac- ity are probably those who are most internally driven to create. The researchers’ approach to quantifying happiness is also a matter of interest, since it is often a challenge to find a way to quantify something so subjective.

Summary and Resources

Chapter Summary Many of the questions researchers and scholars ask deal with the relationships between variables. To accommodate them, the discussion in this chapter shifted to statistical procedures that reflect the hypothesis of association (Objective 1). Three of the many correlation procedures that respond to the hypothesis of association are the Pearson

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 255 3/3/16 12:35 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Summary and Resources

correlation, the point-biserial correlation, and Spearman’s rho. In each case, possible values range from –1.0 to 11.0, and all their coefficients are interpreted the same way. Positive correlations indicate that as the values in one variable increase, the values in the other also increase. Negative correlations indicate that as one increases, the other decreases. The sign of the coefficient, however, is unrelated to its strength (Objective 2).

The differences among the correlation procedures in this chapter are in the kinds of variables they accommodate. The Pearson correlation requires interval or ratio variables that are normally and similarly distributed (Objective 3). A special applica- tion of Pearson, the point-biserial correlation, requires an interval/ratio variable and a second variable that has only two manifestations, or a dichotomously scored variable (Objective 5). Spearman’s rho accommodates any combination of ordinal, interval, or ratio variables (Objective 6). Because the data used in a Pearson correlation contain more information than the rankings that make up the data for Spearman’s approach, the Pearson value provides more information about the nature of the relationship between the variables. This is evident in the fact that the Pearson value can be squared to produce the coefficient of determination. The rxy2 value indicates the proportion of one variable that can be explained by changes in the other (Objective 4). Spearman values have no equivalent of this statistic.

When two variables share information, they are correlated. The amount of one explained by the other is what that rxy2 value, the coefficient of determination, indicates. This con- cept provides a foundation for regression, which is the focus of Chapter 9. Regression allows what is known of y from analyzing x to predict the value of y from a value of x. It involves calculations and thinking with which you are already familiar, so work the end-of-chapter problems, reread any of the sections in Chapter 8, and prepare for Chapter 9.

bivariate correlations Include all proce- dures that test for significant relationships between two variables.

canonical correlation Measures the rela- tionship between two groups of variables.

coefficient of determination Indicates the proportion of one variable in a Pearson cor- relation that can be explained by the other.

correlation matrix A box in which the vari- ables involved are listed in rows as well as in columns, and each variable is correlated with all variables, including itself.

hypothesis of association The umbrella term for significance tests that analyze the correlation between or among variables.

hypothesis of difference The umbrella term for significance tests that analyze the differences between groups.

linear Describes a relationship between two variables whose strength is consistent throughout their ranges. With curvilinear relationships, the strength and sometimes even the nature of the relationship (positive or negative) changes depending upon where in the variables’ ranges they are measured.

Key Terms

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 256 3/3/16 12:35 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Summary and Resources

multiple correlation Gauges the strength of the relationship between one variable and two or more other variables.

nonparametric Tests for data that do not meet the usual normality requirements. More technically, a test in which there is no interest in population parameters.

partial correlation Measures the relation- ship between two variables, controlling for the influence of a third in both of the first two.

Pearson correlation coefficient Indicates the strength of the relationship between interval- or ratio-scale variables.

point-biserial correlation A special appli- cation of the Pearson correlation for those instances where one of the variables, such as gender or marital status, has just two manifestations.

range attenuation Occurs when a variable is not measured throughout its entire range. Attenuated range artificially reduces the strength of any resulting correlation value.

scatterplot A graph representing two vari- ables, one on the horizontal axis, the other on the vertical axis. Each point in the graph indicates the measure of both variables for one individual.

semi-partial correlation Gauges the rela- tionship between two variables, controlling for a third in just one of the first two.

Spearman’s rho A correlation procedure for two ordinal variables, one ordinal and one interval/ratio variable or two interval or ratio variables, that fail to meet Pearson cor- relation requirements for normality.

Review Questions Answers to the odd-numbered questions are provided in Appendix A.

1. What values indicate the strongest and weakest values for a Pearson’s r?

2. What is the equivalent in a Pearson correlation for η2?

3. What are the requirements for calculating Pearson’s r?

4. What is “range attenuation,” and how does it affect correlation values for linear relationships?

5. A university counselor gathers data on students’ grades and whether or not they are employed. What statistical procedure will gauge that relationship?

6. What procedure will indicate whether there is a significant relationship between sales representatives’ sales rank and their attitudes about the product they sell?

7. a. What procedure will gauge the relationship between university students’ grade averages and their scores on, for example, a statistics test?

b. What statistic will indicate the proportion of the students’ test scores that is a function of their GPA?

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 257 3/3/16 12:35 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Summary and Resources

8. A forensic psychologist gathers data on the average time of night juveniles go to bed and whether or not they have an arrest record.

a. What procedure will allow the psychologist to evaluate the relationship between those two variables?

b. What is the resulting coefficient? c. How much of variability in arrest records can be explained by what time the juve-

nile goes to bed?

Juvenile Retire Arrest

1 9.0 No

2 9.5 No

3 11.0 Yes

4 11.5 Yes

5 10.0 Yes

6 9.75 No

7 10.0 No

8 10.25 Yes

9. A group of consumers has just taken two surveys on (a) their attitude about the economy and (b) their attitude about those in government. In both, higher scores mean more optimism. The data are ordinal scale. Are the two attitudes related?

Consumer Economy Government

1 15 10

2 5 4

3 16 11

4 10 8

5 11 13

6 3 4

7 12 10

8 11 8

9 10 7

10 14 9

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 258 3/3/16 12:35 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Summary and Resources

10. A group of students has been told that reading will help them in a test of verbal ability required by the university they wish to attend. The x variable indicates the minutes per day spent reading. The y variable represents students’ scores on the test.

Student Minutes (x) Score (y)

1 15 57

2 80 84

3 0 60

4 75 92

5 30 65

6 10 60

7 22 75

8 15 68

a. Is the relationship statistically significant? b. How much of the variance in test scores can be explained by differences in the

amount of time spent reading?

11. A district psychologist is working with developmentally disabled students in a special education setting and is curious about the relationship between students’ persistence on puzzle tasks (measured in the number of minutes they remain on task) and their number of absences from class.

Student Persist Absent

1 12 3

2 4 3

3 15 5

4 18 7

5 12 1

6 5 4

7 8 3

8 9 4

Is the relationship between persistence and attendance statistically significant at p 5 0.05?

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 259 3/3/16 12:35 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Summary and Resources

12. An employer wishes to analyze the relationship between stress and job perfor- mance. Stress is reflected by systolic blood pressure. Job performance is measured in the number of sales per day.

a. What is the appropriate correlation procedure? b. Is the relationship statistically significant?

Employee Sales Blood pressure

1 1 150

2 4 140

3 3 140

4 6 110

5 2 140

6 4 130

7 0 160

8 3 110

9 5 120

10 7 160

13. An industrial psychologist is determining the relationship between workers’ willing- ness to embrace new manufacturing procedures, gauged with a dogmatism scale (higher scores indicate greater dogmatism), and their level of job satisfaction (higher scores indicate greater satisfaction). The satisfaction data are at least ordinal scale.

a. What is the relationship? b. What is the null hypothesis? c. Do you reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis? d. What is the relationship between dogmatism and job satisfaction? e. Is the correlation statistically significant?

Worker Dogmatism Satisfaction

1 8 4

2 4 12

3 3 14

4 5 15

5 7 5

6 2 14

7 3 15

8 1 15

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 260 3/3/16 12:35 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

Summary and Resources

Answers to Try It! Questions

1. A single point in a scatterplot represents two raw scores, one for x and one for y.

2. If the two variables are normally distributed but uncorrelated, their combined scat- terplot will be circular with greatest density in the middle of the plot because of the tendency for most of the data to fall in the middle of either distribution.

3. Range attenuation diminishes the strength of the correlation value in linear relation- ships. It produces an artificially low correlation coefficient.

4. As degrees of freedom increase, the correlation value required to reach significance diminishes.

5. Spearman’s rho accommodates variables that have any combination of ordinal, interval, or ratio scale.

6. The coefficient would indicate that the higher the ranking, the lower the GPA. If a ranking of 1 is “best,” the best (highest) GPA must also receive a class ranking of 1. Otherwise, the relationship looks negative when it is not.

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 261 3/3/16 12:35 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

tan82773_08_ch08_227-262.indd 262 3/3/16 12:35 PM

© 2016 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.

ENGL 1302 Annotated Bibliography Assignment

  • ENGL 1302 Annotated Bibliography Assignment
    For this assignment, you’ll compile a list of sources that discuss varying perspectives and approaches to the social, political, or ethical problem you choose to write about this term. For each source, you’ll include an MLA-formatted Works Cited entry, then two fully-developed paragraphs discussing that particular source.
    The first paragraph will be a summary of the source, including at least one quote you’ve taken from the source that you think represents the thesis, or main point, of that source. That paragraph should also include a description of the evidence or details the author uses to support that point.
    The second paragraph should be an evaluation of that source’s reliability and credibility, using the information from our Norton textbook and the class discussion covering the CRAAP test. Consider purpose, audience, and overall effectiveness in this evaluation.
    You need to find at least SEVEN sources, according to the following guidelines:

    • At least three articles taken from academic journals housed in our library’s databases
    • No more than two sources drawn from the internet at large (News sites, blogs, etc.)
    • At least one hard-copy source from our on-campus library
    • At least one multi-media source—podcast, video, documentary, etc
    • Then, at the end of the document, you’ll include a Critical Assessment of your collected sources, in which you discuss them as a whole. Things to consider:
    • To what conclusions do your collected sources as a whole lead?
    • Was anything new, surprising, or interesting?
    • What do your sources say about the importance of your topic?
    • What do your sources say about the currency or relevance of your topic?
    • What do your sources teach about the problem you’re exploring?
    • The final document must be formatted according to MLA guidelines, including in-text citations and bibliographical documentation. The Critical Assessment will necessarily span 750-1000 words—any shorter and you won’t have developed your ideas thoroughly enough, but any longer means you are probably trying to do too much. Your submission must be your own work, created originally for this assignment, otherwise normal rules for plagiarism will apply.
  • AssignmentPreliminary Annotated Bibliography EntriesFor this assignment, you’ll begin the Annotated Bibliography assignment (for which the instructions can be found above) by completing FOUR (4) of the annotated entries required for the assignment.
    Draw your sources from the Preliminary List of Sources assignment from last week, and then complete the Summary and Evaluation paragraphs for each of those sources.
    Submit those four sources in a single, MLA-formatted .docx here, and use the feedback I give you to guide the rest of your efforts.

    Olson 1

    Jessica Ann Olson

    Professor Wright

    English 101, Section 2

    29 September 2008

    Annotated Bibliography on Global Warming

    Gore, Al. An Inconvenient Truth: The Planetary Emergency of Global

    Warming and What We Can Do about It. Rodale, 2006. This

    publication, which is based on Gore’s slide show on global

    warming, stresses the urgency of the global warming crisis. It

    centers on how the atmosphere is very thin and how

    greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide are making it

    thicker. The thicker atmosphere traps more infrared

    radiation, causing warming of the Earth. Gore argues that

    carbon dioxide, which is created by burning fossil fuels,

    cutting down forests, and producing cement, accounts for

    eighty percent of greenhouse gas emissions. He includes

    several examples of problems caused by global warming.

    Penguins and polar bears are at risk because the glaciers they

    call home are quickly melting. Coral reefs are being bleached

    and destroyed when their inhabitants overheat and leave.

    Global warming is now affecting people’s lives as well. For

    example, the highways in Alaska are only frozen enough to

    be driven on fewer than eighty days of the year. In China and

    elsewhere, record-setting floods and droughts are taking

    place. Hurricanes are on the rise. This source’s goal is to

    inform its audience about the ongoing global warming crisis

    and to inspire change across the world. It is useful because it

    Olson 2

    relies on scientific data that can be referred to easily and it

    provides a solid foundation for me to build on. For example,

    it explains how carbon dioxide is produced and how it is

    currently affecting plants and animals. This evidence could

    potentially help my research on how humans are biologically

    affected by global warming. It will also help me structure my

    essay, using its general information to lead into the specifics

    of my topic. For example, I could introduce the issue by

    explaining the thinness of the atmosphere and the effect of

    greenhouse gases, then focus on carbon dioxide and its

    effects on organisms.

    Parmesan, Camille, and Hector Galbraith. “Executive Summary.”

    Observed Impacts of Global Climate Change in the U.S., Pew

    Center on Global Climate Change, Nov. 2004, www.c2es.org/

    docUploads/final_ObsImpact.pdf. Accessed 17 Jan. 2007. This

    report summarizes recent scientific findings that document

    the impact changes in the climate have had on the

    distribution of plants and animals in the United States and

    on how they interact within their communities. For example,

    it explains how a shift has taken place in the blooming

    period for plants and the breeding period for animals caused

    by global warming. Because of changes in their geographic

    range, species may interact differently, possibly resulting in

    population declines. For example, the red fox is now found in

    areas dominated by the arctic fox and is threatening its

    survival. The report stresses that such shifts can harm the

    Olson 3

    world’s biodiversity. Plants and animals that are rare now

    face extinction. The annual cycle of carbon dioxide levels in

    the atmosphere has also changed, largely due to the

    lengthening of the growing season, affecting basic ecosystem

    processes. I did not find this report as helpful as other

    sources because its information is based only on

    observations made in the United States. The information

    appears reliable, though, because it is based on scientific

    evidence. This essay will be helpful to my essay because it

    focuses on how plants and animals are currently affected,

    such as their shifting communities and how they are

    clashing. I could use this to explain human changes by

    providing evidence of what is happening to other species.

    This source will not be as helpful in explaining the climate’s

    effects on human biological function in particular, but it will

    provide some framework. For example, I could explain how

    the plants that help convert carbon dioxide into oxygen are

    being harmed and relate that to how the humans will suffer

    the consequences.

    “Annotated Bibliography on Global Warming.” Reprinted by permission of the author.

why was it important at the time, and what long-term impacts did it have on the commercial aviation industry?

Topics for the research paper are required to be directly related to aviation or aerospace legislation. You can select a topic from Research Paper Topics or from the Statutes/Cases listed in the Lawrence text that address an aviation topic discussed in the course.

As you select a topic for your paper, be able to provide a case/defense answering the question: In the historical context when this topic/legislative action was taken, why was it important at the time, and what long-term impacts did it have on the commercial aviation industry?

What tasks were identified and successfully completed by you and your coachee during the coaching relationship?

To this point in the final project, you have assisted your coachee to (1) develop two professional objectives and assess their significance, (2) identify possible obstacles to the objectives, and (3) determine some possible strategies and action steps for reaching the objectives. During the final week of the project, you will be moving towards closure in the coaching relationship and evaluating the effectiveness of your work with your coachee. 

Because of the short duration of the coaching practicum, concluding whether significant progress has been made towards achieving the desired outcomes might be unclear. However, as you complete your coaching interaction, it is important for you and your coachee to reflect on the process in which you engaged as a collaborative team, including how you will bring the coaching relationship to a close and what next steps the coachee will take. In other words, the reflection is about the quality of the process and next steps more than the success of reaching the objectives. 

Week 5 Assignment

As part of the reflection process, the coachee should complete the Coaching Feedback Form
As the student-coach, you should address the following questions. 

Assessment of Tasks and Process:

  • What tasks were identified and successfully completed by you and your coachee during the coaching relationship?
  • How would you assess your coachee’s participation, open-mindedness, and willingness to be coached?
  • Did you hold your coachee accountable for completions?
    • How did you do this?
    • Were your methods successful? Why?
  • How would you assess your effectiveness as a coach?
    • What specifically did you learn about yourself through this process?
    • What coaching strengths and weaknesses emerged through this process?
    • What did you learn from this coaching experience?
  • How did your coachee assess your effectiveness as a coach? What gaps exist, if any, between your self-assessment of your performance and your coachee’s assessment of your performance?
  • What would you do differently if you had the opportunity to re-do the coaching project?
  • What did you learn about the potential for coaching to enhance the professional development of individuals in an organization? To enhance the productivity of an organization?
  • If it were possible to do so, how would you infuse coaching into your organization?
  • How did this project affect your leadership knowledge and skills?
  • What is your overall assessment of this coaching process? Was it a valuable experience for you and your coachee? Why or why not? 

Assessment of Next Steps

  • What next steps, if any, have you and your coachee agreed to work on?
  • Will your coachee continue the coaching process with a certified coach?
  • What next steps have you identified for yourself to continue your own professional development? 

Assessment of Appropriate Closure

  • How did you close your coaching relationship?
  • How did you and your coachee feel about this relationship coming to a close?
  • Did you discuss this closure and your respective feelings with each other?
  • Does your coachee feel comfortable moving forward with the plans and objectives independent of the coaching relationship?
  • Have you ensured confidentiality of all communications and properly destroyed all written communications? 

Submission Details:

  • Organize and submit your report in a four page Microsoft Word document, using APA style.Running head:

    COACHING SESSION 3 1

    COACHING SESSION 3 2

    Coaching Session 3

    Student’s Name

    Institution Affiliation

    Coaching Session 3

    Coaching is an essential thing in a daily lives of the individuals having the uncontrollable behavior. It enables the coachee to see the other perspective of doing things apart from the normal ones. Coaching is well achieved through a coaching session that has been well prepared. In this paper, we are going to recap the previous coaching session, set of the plans for the coachee to achieve the two stated objectives, and the steps to achieve before the next coaching session.

    Recap of the Previous Coaching Session

    It was on 5th of September 2019 when the second coaching session occurred. The session took place at the local churches. This was between the coach and Ms. Doss. Ms. Doss was the one being coached on the approaches of saving towards the general life. Secondly she was also being coached on the having a maintainable philosophy of saving the money.

    The coach informed Ms. Doss on the two goals where one is short period while the other has a long period. The short period goal was to save towards the general life. The long period goal was to have a manageable philosophy for the savings. He explained to Ms. Doss that most women do not save because they waste money on the accessories, clothes and the shoes for them to be similar to others.

    This was followed by the coach pointing out the cash should be used to purchase important things in life. But, it should not be spend to make oneself equal to the others. He insisted that saving should not be a philosophy for a few month. However, it should continue over and over even after the coaching session is over. He also states that the coachee can be fully motivated to change the habit as no change is impossible.

    On the other hand, Ms. Doss is has hope for starting a saving routine. She says of how she is devoted to rank her wants so that she cannot overspend and take the loans. She also said of how the coaching has increased has self-confidence. But Ms. Doss has some challenges which are making her not to achieve her goal. Among them, she has the natural instincts of the female. This makes her to compete with the other ladies so that they can be on the same level. In conclusion, her habits can be fully changed when she cuts down on some expenses.

    Actions Plans for the Coachee to Achieve the Objectives

    The coachee has two main objectives to achieve. First is to change the approaches for saving and the whole life in general. For the coachee to achieve this, she first has to accept herself. This will be done by her having a purpose and the agenda for the clear expectations (Zenger & Stinnett, 2010). Accepting herself will be followed her not comparing herself with others. In order to stop comparing herself with others, she needs to live with her limits and the finances that she has is it among the best action plan.

    Besides, she should have the list of the things to be achieved. This should range from the most basic things in life to the ones that are not important. Her priorities should be set right. For her to achieve the rightness in the priorities, it requires to be in constant interaction with the coach for the motivation (Anderson, 2017). The motivation will help in raising the self-confidence hence not comparing herself with the others.

    The second objective is to generate a bearable philosophy for the savings. This objective can be achieved through the following actions of plans. First it is to start as soon as possible (Joel, 2017). Ms. Doss has to start the saving even if it is with the least amount as possible. Secondly is through having a plan. the plan should be well developed as the as you grow the saving account (Joel, 2017). The plan should include the purpose of saving and the decisions towards savings.

    The other action plan to be taken by the coachee is to know what the investments are for. This is very critical as saving without an investment plan will not work it out (Joel, 2017). It should be put in mind that the saving are about an individual. During the investment, the other people should not be worried about or compared to (Joel, 2017). As when comparing your plans with those of other, progress will not be experienced.

    Action Steps for the next Coaching Session

    Before the next coaching session, the following steps should be taken. First is the development of the saving plan. This will enable the better planning and the different ways that can be used for saving. Besides, it will also ensure that the plan is in acceptance with the coachee. Secondly, I will locate the saving platforms that can be used. This will be in accompany with a saving calculate for the coachee to know the amount of money to save each month. At the completion of the coaching process, I will also have to follow up on the progress of the savings even after the coaching session is over (Zenger & Stinnett, 2010). The following up even after the session will enhance the accountability.

    References

    Anderson, C. (2017). Three ways to prepare for you coaching client conversation. ICF

    Joel, S. (2017, August 15). ARGUS. Retrieved from 6 Guidelines for Your Saving Philosophy: https://www.argus.bm/learning-resources/guides/finance-guides/6-guidelines-for-your-saving-philosophy/ Zenger, J. H., & Stinnett, K. (2010).The extraordinary coach: How the best leaders help others grow. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. ISBN: 9780071703406b

    R

    unning

    head:

    COACHING SESSION 3

    1

    Coaching Session 3

    S

    tudent

    s Name

    Institution Affiliation

    Running head: COACHING SESSION 3 1

    Coaching Session 3

    Student’s Name

    Institution Affiliation

Discuss accountability for quality and performance within a healthcare organization as it applies to the Christian health administrator.

Please answer each question separately. Each question must be 250-300  words each. Please be plagiarism free and also, make sure sources are  cited APA.

1. How might a health administrator use the Christian worldview in strategic planning?

2. Discuss accountability for quality and performance within a healthcare organization as it applies to the Christian health administrator.

Post the strategies you plan to use to gather, organize, understand and summarize the resources for your dissertation.

Due 9/18  8 p.m EST

400 words not including title &ref min  3 APA

Be on time & Original Work

 

Your literature review sets the stage for everything else that you do in your dissertation. It is through this review that you determine the research that has been conducted in your area of interest and the gaps that exist where research is still needed. The literature review also helps support hypotheses that you might have generated and the choices that you make in your research.

As you proceed, you will review numerous articles that are applicable to your topic. Managing your search of the literature involves four steps: gathering publications, organizing them, understanding the most important elements in them, and learning to summarize them. These are key parts in the dissertation process.

How will you manage your resources? How will you identify the main themes in the literature? How will you translate those themes into a summary?

Think about strategies you have used in the past to manage information. What was effective and what was not? Explore the Resources  to see what else you can learn.

Post the strategies you plan to use to gather, organize, understand and summarize the resources for your dissertation. Include steps for tracking your search techniques. Describe your strategies for storing and backing up your resources and the tools you will use or have found to be useful. Be specific.

Interacting with these statements, how would you answer someone accusing Christianity of exclusivism.

Requires 150 words min and references.

Jesus made many absolute statements such as the following:

John 14:6: “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me” (NIV).

Matthew 7:13-14: “Enter through the narrow gate. For wide is the gate and broad is the road that leads to destruction, and many enter through it. But small is the gate and narrow the road that leads to life, and only a few find it” (NIV).

Interacting with these statements, how would you answer someone accusing Christianity of exclusivism.

What are the potential organizational policies to which you will refer?

Write a 1,250 word paper in which you explore decision making methods that can be used to resolve an ethical dilemma using the scenario provided in the assigned reading, “An Unconscious Patient With a DNR Tattoo.” Describe how to use the principles of ethical decision making (reviewed in this topic) to help resolve this ethical dilemma. Address the scenario to generate your conclusions about how you would proceed.

1.  What are the dimensions of the ethical dilemma?

2.  What are the potential organizational policies to which you will refer?

3.  Apply the four core health care ethical principles and the process of ethical decision making in formulating your assistance to the clinical staff.

Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.

This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.

You are required to submit this assignment to LopesWrite. Please refer to the directions in the Student Success Center.

Airport Design and Capacity Example:  San Francisco International Airport (KSFO).

Airport Design and Capacity Example:  San Francisco International Airport (KSFO).

This activity consists of two parts:

First, watch the following short video about why the design of SFO often causes problems for travelers.

Video Player00:0010:111.00x

  • 2.00x
  • 1.50x
  • 1.25x
  • 1.00x
  • 0.75x
  • 0.50x
  • 1280×720 1373 kbps (mp4)
  • 854×480 595 kbps (mp4)
  • 640×360 469 kbps (mp4)

Use Up/Down Arrow keys to increase or decrease volume.Minimize embedded content

Second, write a short 200-300 word discussion input related to the airport you chose for this week’s Essay (Activity 2.3).  For that same airport, describe the general runway layout and issues that limit the airport’s capacity.  It might be runway proximity under instrument conditions (like SFO), limited runways, noise restrictions, nearby airport traffic, or even air traffic saturation (like at Level 3 slot-controlled airports).  In addition to the capacity limitation, also describe possible solutions the airport might take to mitigate that limitation and improve their capacity.

In what ways did the study communicate the purpose, logic, and reason for the study?

Using the Hunt Library EAGLEsearch function, identify a “Scholarly & Peer-Reviewed” article in your area of interest. Give a brief summary of the article; a paragraph or two will suffice. Separately, identify the research problem, research question(s), and/or hypothesis(es) in the study. Quote the research problem, research question, and hypothesis(es) in proper APA format. Additionally, answer the following questions:

  • In what ways did the study communicate the purpose, logic, and reason for the study?
  • Did the study shed light on how to better understand or correct the research problem? Why or why not?
  • How did the study answer or address the hypothesis?

In order to treat patients with voice disorders, in addition to this class, what other knowledge do you think one needs to obtain to be prepared and proficient?

In order to treat patients with voice disorders, in addition to this class, what other knowledge do you think one needs to obtain to be prepared and proficient?   Briefly describe the additional knowledge you believe one needs.  Perform an online search and describe where you can gain this additional knowledge. Reference your online sources in APA format.

Why would you consider a square watermelon an advantage?

Read “Square Watermelons!” Operations in Practice case on page 122 of the course textbook and answer the following questions:

1. Why would you consider a square watermelon an advantage?

2. What have you learned from this case about product design?

What assignments from this course aligned with your profession?

What assignments from this course aligned with your profession? How can the lessons you have learned positively affect your career success (now or in the future)? Be specific, and discuss how these lessons will enhance your career and workplace success.

Optional: On average, over 80% of a CEO’s pay is connected to the stock price, and thus, if the company does well, the CEO gets rewarded handsomely. In addition, some entrepreneur CEOs risk their family’s livelihood and invest all their personal savings to start a company. They work twice as many hours a week as most American workers, and they provide motivation for new entrants into the market that there can be a major payoff. But is this payoff too high? Are American CEOs paid too much? Why, or why not?

Please include the name of the person or question to which you are replying in the subject line. For example, “Tom’s response to Susan’s comment.”

ALSO PLEASE REPLY TO ANOTHER STUDENTS COMMENT BELOW

Cidney:

Almost all of these assignments align with any profession. I am not currently in a profession as I am pregnant and stay at home mom and am unable to work due to the circumstances surrounding my pregnancy. In the past I have dealt with all aspects of this course. Unfortunately the companies I have worked for have had poor human resource management teams and poor management and direction to boot. Human resources is supposed to be a major part of the back bone of a company and it can make or break a company depending on the type of skilled or unskilled management team you have. I think that this course helps you understand how the system is supposed to work in hopes that people in this department will understand what a good human resource team looks like and how it runs.

 create and evaluate a health promotion program that targets one of the following issues

Health Promotion Program

create and evaluate a health promotion program that targets one of the following issues:

  • Tobacco Cessation
  • Diabetes
  • Obesity
  • Substance Abuse

After reviewing the Unit VIII study guide, examine the program and discuss the five major components of community health programming and the six steps of evaluation. Be sure to address the following:

  1. Provide detailed background information on the topic.
  2. Prove a minimum of three specific and realistic goals/objectives.
  3. Provide detailed information on how you will use the five steps of programming (program planning) to create a community health intervention/program.
  4. Provide detailed information on how you will use the six steps of evaluation to evaluate your program.

Your APA-formatted paper should be at least five pages (not including the title or reference pages). You are required to use at least your textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.

In this second portion of the Final Exam, you will critically evaluate a quantitative research study on a social science topic.

In this second portion of the Final Exam, you will critically evaluate a quantitative research study on a social science topic. Your instructor will post an announcement with the reference for the article assigned for the exam. The study will be from a peer-reviewed journal and published within the last 10 years.

In the body of your critique, describe the statistical approaches used, the variables included, the hypothesis(es) proposed, and the interpretation of the results. In your conclusion, suggest other statistical approaches that could have been used and, if appropriate, suggest alternative interpretations of the results. This process will allow you to apply the concepts learned throughout the course in the interpretation of actual scientific research.

Your critique must include the following sections and information:

Introduction:

  • This section will introduce the assigned peer-reviewed quantitative study.
  • Identify clearly the research questions and/or hypothesis(es) as well as the purpose of the study.

Methods:

  • Describe the procedures and methods of data collection, measures/instruments used, the participants and how they were selected, and the statistical techniques used.

Results:

  • Summarize in this section the results presented in the study.

Discussion:

  • Evaluate the efficacy of the research study by discussing the following:
    • Address the strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.
    • Include additional forms of statistical analyses as part of the suggestions for future research.

Conclusion:

  • Summarize the main points of your evaluation of the study.
  • Explain how the statistical test used in the study could be applied to your future career. Give one example.
  • Discuss how your ability to critique quantitative research could impact your future career.

The Final Exam Part 2 paper

  • Must be three to four double-spaced pages in length (not including title and references pages) and formatted according to APA Style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center’s APA Style (Links to an external site.)
  • Must include a separate title page with the following:
    • Title of paper
    • Student’s name
    • Course name and number
    • Instructor’s name
    • Date submitted

For further assistance with the formatting and the title page, refer to APA Formatting for Word 2013 (Links to an external site.).

  • Must utilize academic voice. See the Academic Voice (Links to an external site.) resource for additional guidance.
  • Must include an introduction and a conclusion paragraph that summarizes your critical evaluation.
    • For assistance on writing Introductions & Conclusions (Links to an external site.), refer to the Ashford Writing Center resources.
  • Must use the quantitative research study assigned by your instructor. It is strongly recommended that you also use either the textbook or a peer-reviewed article about the statistical test(s) used by the researchers, to support your evaluation of the study.
    • You may find the Writing Center resource Action Words in Academic Writing (Links to an external site.) helpful in understanding the requirements of the assignment.
    • The Scholarly, Peer-Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.) table offers additional guidance on appropriate source types. If you have questions about whether a specific source is appropriate for this assignment, please contact your instructor. Your instructor has the final say about the appropriateness of a specific source for a particular assignment.
    • To assist you in completing the research required for this assignment, view this Ashford University Library Quick ‘n’ Dirty (Links to an external site.) tutorial, which introduces the Ashford University Library and the research process, and provides some library search tips.
  • Must document any information used from sources in APA Style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center’s APA: Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.)
  • Must include a separate references page that is formatted according to APA Style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.

Reference:

Whipps, J., Byra, M., Gerow, K. G., & Guseman, E. H. (2018). Evaluation of nighttime media use and sleep patterns in first-semester college students. American Journal of Health Behavior, 42(3), 47-55. DOI: 10.5993/AJHB.42.3.5

Am J Health Behav.™ 2018;42(3):47-55 47

The obesity epidemic has a dominant glob-al and national presence. Research shows that 35% of American men and 40.4% of women over the age of 19 years are obese.1 These statistics demonstrate that a high proportion of the population in the United States (US) is impacted directly by the obesity epidemic, which has been proven to be both economically and physiologi- cally taxing. Obesity is defined as the excess accu- mulation of body fat to the point that it can have a negative impact on health. Numerous factors have been identified as obesogenic (those contributing to the development of obesity), including decreased energy expenditure, increased energy intake, and decreased levels of physical activity.2 Concerted ef- forts are being made to understand this epidemic from all possible viewpoints.

Insufficient and poor sleep have emerged as obe-

sogenic risk factors. Sleep pattern disturbances are associated with impaired cognitive abilities, poor memory, confusion, reduced intellectual capacity, and altered motor function.3 Impaired sleep also can decrease academic performance,4 and increase the incidence of vehicular accidents.5 Furthermore, poor sleep quality and reduced sleep duration may be associated with weight gain.6 College students often report chronic reduced sleep quality and sleep duration.7

The specific causes of poor sleep quality and du- ration are diverse, but the presence of media de- vices within the bedroom, such as smart phones and tablets, is a novel point of discussion in terms of their effect on sleep quality and duration. The effect of cell phone presence in the bedroom on sleep has been described in adolescents and adults and implicated as a potential obesogenic factor,8,9

Jonathon Whipps, Doctoral Student, Translational Biomedical Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, OH. Mark Byra, Professor, Division of Kinesiology and Health, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY. Kenneth G Gerow, Professor, Department of Statistics, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY. Emily Hill Guseman, Assistant Professor, Diabetes Institute and Department of Family Medicine, Ohio University Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Athens, OH. Correspondence Dr Guseman; gusemane@ohio.edu

Evaluation of Nighttime Media Use and Sleep Patterns in First-semester College Students

Jonathon Whipps, MS Mark Byra, PhD Kenneth G. Gerow, PhD Emily Hill Guseman, PhD

Objective: We evaluated how nighttime media use is associated with sleep behaviors in first- semester college students, and variation by weight status. Methods: In September 2016, first-se- mester college students (N = 114) completed surveys evaluating nighttime media usage (NMU) and sleep behaviors. Height, weight, and waist circumference were measured, and weight status was determined by body mass index. Results: Students reported a mean sleep duration of 7.26 ± 0.93 hours. Only 33% (N = 38) reported sleeping at least 8 hours/night on average. Higher scores on the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index were correlated with reports of texting after bed (r = .199, p = .04). Total time in bed was correlated with texting in bed (r = .217, p = .026) and device- related sleep interruptions (r = .215, p = .028). Social media usage (r = 0.270, p = .005), mobile gaming (r = .208, p = .033), and texting (r = .293, p = .002) were correlated with sleep interrup- tions. NMU was positively correlated with weight and weight status. Conclusions: These results suggest NMU is associated with reduced sleep quality.

Key words: media use; first-semester college students; sleep quality; sleep patterns; weight status; college student health Am J Health Behav.™ 2018;42(3):47-55 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.42.3.5

Evaluation of Nighttime Media Use and Sleep Patterns in First-semester College Students

48

but has not been well described in young adults (18-24 years old) or college students specifically. Also, research has yet to explore whether a direct relationship exists between nighttime media habits and sleep hygiene.

College freshmen prove to be an important group for studying this phenomenon. Young adults mov- ing from the high school to college setting undergo a transition in behaviors as described by Chicker- ing’s Theory of Identity Development.10 Because these individuals are undergoing a change in be- havior and have been raised in a technological envi- ronment, they may provide valuable insight about this area.

Better understanding of the associations among sleep patterns, nighttime media usage, and weight status can provide novel insight as to how these fac- tors may impact weight. Although some research has explored the relationship that nighttime media use has with sleep habits, most have not described a direct relationship between NMU and sleep, and most have not looked at this relationship in young adults or colleges students. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the association be- tween presence and use of media devices at night- time, such as tablets and smart phones, and sleep patterns of first-semester college students (young adults), and whether these behaviors are associated with weight gain. We hypothesized that first-semes- ter college students who exhibited suboptimal sleep patterns would show increased incidence of sleep disturbance via nighttime media usage and would be associated with weight gain over the course of one semester.

METHODS Participants

Participants were 18-24-year-old first-semester students at the University of Wyoming. Instructors of 34 first-year seminar (FYS) courses were contact- ed in September of 2016 and 6 instructors invited the researchers to recruit participants from their classrooms. The main investigator (JW) attended each FYS course in September 2016 to explain the study, invite students to participate, and explain the consent form; freedom of consent was stressed during this process. Of 142 potentially-eligible students, 128 (90.1%) chose to participate. Sur- veys were completed during the class period with

assistance from the main investigator (JW) when necessary (ie, clarifying survey items). For anthro- pometric measures, participants were taken to an adjacent room or area divided by a privacy screen. All members of the study team were trained in hu- man subject research protections, anthropometric measures, and the survey instruments. The main investigator (JW) and/or faculty supervisor (EHG) were present at all data collection sessions.

Sleep Quality and Duration We assessed sleep quality and duration using

the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI).11 The PSQI measures 7 variables associated with sleep: sleep quality, sleep duration, habitual sleep effi- ciency, sleep disturbances, use of medications to assist with sleep, and daytime dysfunction.7,11 The combination of scores from the measured sleep vari- ables determines an individual’s global sleep quality score (GSQ). The PSQI scores can range from 0 to 21, with higher scores indicative of lower quality of sleep. Individuals with a GSQ greater than 5 are classified as poor sleepers, whereas those with scores less than 5 are considered to be good sleepers. The survey evaluated the prevalence of the above vari- ables from the last month.7 The PSQI has been vali- dated to assess sleep quality and duration.11 Scoring procedures specific to the PSQI were used to quan- tify survey responses for statistical analysis.

Nighttime Media Usage We assessed nighttime media usage (NMU) us-

ing 7 questions adapted from those used by Ada- chi-Mejia et al.8 Table 1 shows the survey items and coding. In this survey, items 1-6 were scored using 5-point Likert scale responses used to quan- tify responses (1 meaning never to 5 meaning all the time) and were collapsed as necessary. Item 7 was entered as nights per week (up to 7). We used this information to determine the frequency with which nighttime media disturbs sleep, and how fre- quently students access media devices prior to bed. We compared these activities to other variables.

Anthropometric Measures We measured height, weight, body mass index

(BMI), and waist circumference at baseline and at a follow-up date approximately 10.5 ± 1.02 weeks

Whipps et al

Am J Health Behav.™ 2018;42(3):47-55 49 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.42.3.5

later (range = 9.3 to 12.3 weeks). Prior to taking height and weight measurements, we instructed participants to remove their shoes and any bulky articles of clothing. Height was determined using a portable stadiometer and reported in meters. We measured weight using a portable digital scale and we reported it in kilograms (kg). Using the mea- sured heights and weights of the participants, we calculated BMI using the standard BMI equation (BMI = Weight (kg) / Height2 (m2)). We measured waist circumference (WC) using a flexible measur- ing tape. We instructed participants to cross their arms across their chest and to place their hands upon their shoulders. Using the right side of the body, a trained research team member located the ileum and marked the site using a non-permanent marker. A cross was made across this mark in line with the mid-axillary line. Once marked, the par- ticipants were instructed to stand up straight with the arms at the side and relaxed, head facing for- ward, and with the feet shoulders distance apart. The measuring tape was wrapped around the par- ticipant’s waist, ensuring the tape was parallel to the floor and was crossing the iliac mark. Once the tape was correctly positioned, a measurement was taken and recorded in centimeters (cm) at the end of a normal exhalation.

Data Analysis and Statistics We computed descriptive statistics for physical

characteristics and used independent sample t-tests to identify any potential differences between men and women. No statistically significant differences between men and women existed, so analyses of

the main outcome variables were not completed separately for each sex. Frequency distributions were calculated for categorical scores from the PSQI and responses to the NMU questionnaire. Pearson correlations were used to determine the ex- tent to which the presence of electronic devices in the bedroom and NMU correlate with categories of sleep latency, sleep duration, sleep quality, and sleep efficiency. A type-I error rate of .05 was used to determine statistical significance. We used the IBM Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 23.0 to conduct statistical analyses.

RESULTS Participant Characteristics

Table 2 displays participant characteristics. Of 128 students initially surveyed, 114 completed the entire study (retention rate = 89.1%). The partici- pants that did not complete the study (N = 14) were either not present for the follow-up assess- ment period or had incomplete survey responses. Participants who were not present for the follow- up assessment were not contacted to complete the study. Of participants who completed the study, just over half (55%) identified as female (N = 52). The mean age of the students at the initial visit was 18.7 ± 0.4 years. Ninety-three percent (N = 106) of students identified as Caucasian/white, and the other 7% of students (N = 8) reported another ethnicity, not unlike the university overall (10% minority, 53% female). There were no statistically significant differences between sexes in anthropo- metric measures except for height. Table 2 reports differences for participant characteristics. Of the

Table 1 Nighttime Media Usage (NMU) Questionnaire Items and Abbreviations

NMU1 Do you take your cell phone and/or tablet to bed with you?

NMU2 Is your cell phone and/or tablet turned off when you sleep?

NMU3 Do you use your cell phone and/or tablet as your alarm?

NMU4 Do you text or use a messaging app after you go to bed?

NMU5 Do you play games on your cell phone and/or tablet after you have gone to bed?

NMU6 Do you use social media on your device(s) after you have gone to bed?

NMU7 How many nights of the week do you get awakened by a text or other notification from a friend or social media after you go to bed to sleep

Evaluation of Nighttime Media Use and Sleep Patterns in First-semester College Students

50

population measured, 2 males (3.8%) and 10 fe- males (16.1%) had elevated waist circumferences after initial measurements. These values did not change significantly between pre- and post-mea- surements. Average student BMI at the initial visit was 24.1 kg/m2, which is slightly below the cutoff for an overweight classification. Of participants, 25.4% (N = 29) were overweight (OW; BMI > 25.0 and < 30.0) and 8.8% were obese (OB; BMI > 30.0). Between initial and final measurements, participants’ mean weight increased 0.6 kg ± 1.92 and BMI increased 0.1 kg/m2 ± 5.74. Mean waist circumference decreased by 1.1 cm ± 5.74, which

is approximately equal to the tolerable error limit identified in the study protocol (1 cm).

Sleep Quantity and Quality Table 3 displays sleep measurements. The most

common time (mode) students of both sexes re- ported going to bed was 11:00 PM. The most common rise time was 8:00 AM and the average self-reported sleep duration was 7.26 ± 0.93 hours. The mean time spent in bed was 8.12 ± 0.93 hours, with an average sleep latency (time spent in bed prior to sleep) of 19.6 ± 16.9 minutes. There were

Table 3 Average Sleep Characteristics from Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI)

Male (N = 52) Female (N = 62) Total (N = 114)

Mean Mean Mean

Average Bed Time (Mode) 11:30 PM 11:00 PM 11:00 PM

Average Rise Time (Mode) 7:15 AM 8:00 AM 8:00 AM

Average Sleep Latency (min) 18.3 (15.8) 20.8 (17.8) 19.6 (16.9)

Reported Sleep Duration (h) 7.21 (0.81) 7.30 (1.02) 7.26 (0.93)

Calculated Time in Bed (h) 8.05 (0.87) 8.18 (0.99) 8.12 (0.93)

Sleep Efficiency (%) 90.0 (8.8) 89.4 (9.3) 89.7 (9.0)

Average Global PSQI 4.94 (2.15) 5.51 (2.71) 5.25 (2.48)

Table 2 Participant Characteristics

Male (N = 52) Female (N = 62)

Pre Post Pre Post

Age 18.7 (0.5) — 18.6 (0.3) —

Height (m) 1.80 (0.1) 1.81 (0.1) 1.66 (0.1) 1.66 (0.1)

Weight (kg) 79.9 (13.0) 80.7 (13.2) 65.1 (13.0) 65.6 (13.2)

WC (cm) 82.8 (11.6) 82.7 (9.1) 78.6 (9.8) 76.6 (9.6)

BMI (kg/m2) 24.6 (3.9) 24.8 (4.0) 23.6 (4.5) 23.8 (4.6)

OW (%) 30.8 36.5 21.0 24.2

OB (%) 9.6 7.7 8.1 6.5

Note. Values are mean (SD) unless otherwise indicated. WC = waist circumference; BMI = body mass index; OW = overweight; OB = obesity

Whipps et al

Am J Health Behav.™ 2018;42(3):47-55 51 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.42.3.5

no statistically significant gender differences. Only one-third of participants (N = 38, 33.33%) re- ported meeting sleep recommendations (sleeping at least 8 hours per night). Of those who slept less than 8 hours per night, 25.4% (N = 29) slept 6.5 hours per night or less.

Global PSQI Overall sleep quality was assessed using global

scores calculated from the PSQI responses. Table 3 reports the average Global PSQI, and Table 4 displays the Global PSQI categories and frequen- cies. Respondents who had a Global PSQI score

between 1 and 5 were categorized as optimal sleep- ers (N = 68); scores between 6 and 7 were classi- fied as borderline (N = 26); and poor sleepers were those with scores greater than or equal to 8 (N = 20) based on categories defined within the PSQI scoring guidelines as well as those presented by Lund et al.7 Only 59.6% of respondents were con- sidered optimal sleepers, whereas the other 40.4% were either borderline to poor sleepers.

Nighttime Media Usage Questionnaire Figure 1 displays the NMU response frequencies.

In some cases, responses were collapsed due to low

Table 4 Global PSQI Category Frequencies

Male (N = 52) Female (N = 62) Total (N = 114) Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

Optimal (1-5) 34 65.4 34 54.8 68 59.6 Borderline (6-7) 11 21.2 15 24.2 26 22.8 Poor (>8) 7 13.5 13 21.0 20 17.5

NMU1 NMU2 NMU3 NMU4 NMU5 NMU6 NMU7 0

20

40

60

80

100

Questionnaire Item

Pe rc

en t o

f T ot

al S

am pl

e

Figure 1 NMU Questionnaire Response Frequencies

Note. Responses to individual NMU question items (Table 1) as a percent. NMU 1-6 are scored using 5-point Likert scale responses used to quantify responses (1 meaning never to 5 meaning all the time) and were collapsed as necessary. NMU 7 is nights per week (up to 7).

Evaluation of Nighttime Media Use and Sleep Patterns in First-semester College Students

52

response frequency; this is noted in the figure cap- tion where appropriate. Almost all respondents (N = 105, 92.1%) have their smartphones or tablets in their rooms as they sleep frequently or all the time, and most (N = 108, 94.7%) use their cell phone or tablet as their alarm. Those who did not have their cell phone on and in the bedroom (N = 9) were removed from analyses for NMU questions 4 through 7.

Table 5 shows the correlations between anthro- pometric variables and NMU responses. Those who reported playing games in bed frequently were significantly more likely to have a higher initial weight (p = .006), post-weight (p = .006), initial waist circumference (p = .006), post-waist circumference (p = .037), initial BMI (p = .029), and post-BMI (p = .035). None of the other cor- relations were significant. Unsurprisingly, there was

Table 5 Correlations between NMU Variables and Anthropometric Characteristics

NMU1 NMU2 NMU4 NMU5 NMU6 NMU7

r r r r r r

Pre Weight -0.083 -0.019 -0.039 0.263 * -0.032 -0.172

Post Weight -0.081 -0.029 -0.043 0.263 * -0.028 -0.174

WC -0.068 0.040 -0.029 0.263 * -0.026 -0.151

Post WC -0.047 -0.012 -0.039 0.201 * -0.014 -0.097

BMI 0.034 0.075 -0.023 0.210 * 0.001 -0.139

Post BMI 0.035 0.062 -0.036 0.203 * -0.004 -0.132

Note. **Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed)

Table 6 Correlations between NMU Variables and Sleep Behaviors

Sleep Duration

Bed Hours

Global PSQI

Texting (NMU4)

Nighttime Gaming (NMU5)

Social Media

(NMU6)

Nighttime Interruptions

(NMU7)

r r r r r r r

Sleep Duration 1 – – – – – –

Bed Hours .684** 1 – – – – –

Global PSQI -.355** .053 1 – – – –

Texting (NMU4) .199* .217* -.032 1 – – –

Nighttime Gaming (NMU5) .147 .103 .053 .379** 1 – –

Social Media (NMU6) .102 .058 .074 .652** .328** 1 –

Nighttime Interruptions (NMU7)

.122 .215* .128 .293** .208* .270** 1

Note. **Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed) * Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed)

Whipps et al

Am J Health Behav.™ 2018;42(3):47-55 53 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.42.3.5

no relationship between NMU and change in any anthropometric variable over the 8-week period, as there were no statistically significant changes in any of these variables.

After selecting for students who frequently or al- ways have their cell phones and/or tablets on while sleeping (N = 105), bivariate Pearson correlation models were run to determine how NMU respons- es were correlated with sleep behaviors and PSQI scores (Table 6). Texting after bed was moderately correlated with participants’ Global PSQI score (r = .199, p = .04). Bed hours (time spent in bed) was moderately correlated with both texting in bed (r = .199, p = .04) and device interruptions (r = .270, p = .005). Social media usage and playing games in bed were weakly to moderately correlated with in- terruptions (r = .270, p = .005; r = .293, p = .002) and playing mobile games in bed was moderately correlated with interruptions (r = .208, p = .033).

DISCUSSION In 2015, the American Academy of Sleep Medi-

cine and Sleep Research Society released a consen- sus statement stating adults need 7 or more hours of sleep per night and, for young adults, sleeping more than 9 hours may be appropriate.12 Overall, first year students in our sample reported chroni- cally low levels of sleep compared to current recom- mendations. Total reported sleep time and chronic low sleep in this population were found to be simi- lar to other American college students.7,13 These re- sults emphasize the need to address sleep problems that persist in college-age populations, especially because sleep deprivation has been associated with decreased academic performance,4 increased nega- tive moods,14 increased anxiety and depression,15,16 drowsy driving,17 and reduced productivity.18 Inad- equate time spent sleeping has been demonstrat- ed across both US-born and foreign-born college students as well. Eliasson and Lettieri conducted a study comparing the sleep habits of US-born col- lege students to those of foreign-born students. Although both groups generally reported restrict- ed sleep, foreign-born students were more likely to stay awake longer studying, whereas US-born students delay sleep for more social activities. This suggests that strategies aimed at improving sleep hygiene may need to be tailored based on cultural backgrounds.19

Sleep deprivation is pervasive among young adults in general in the US. Data from the 2014 Be- havioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) found that 32.2% of young adults (age 18-24 years) surveyed reported short sleep duration (<7 hours per night) on average.20 Chronic short sleep may not be unique to the US; the prevalence of short sleep or borderline short sleep has been document- ed in young adult populations in other countries. There is evidence showing reduced sleep duration in countries such as Japan,21 and this trend may ex- tend to other countries as well.22 Furthermore, the role that nighttime media usage plays in short sleep duration may extend outside of young adult col- lege students to young adults in general. Overall, sleep problems may not be unique to the US and potential interventions may need to be explored in- ternationally in the future.

Our results support the hypothesis that night- time media usage is related to sleep quality. The directionality of the relationship cannot be deter- mined from the current study. Participants who more frequently reported playing games, using so- cial media, or texting after bed were more likely to report sleep interruptions by their devices. This suggests that the presence of a smartphone or tablet in the bedroom does increase the likelihood that sleep will be disturbed and can have an overall im- pact on sleep quality, however prospective studies are necessary to confirm this.

Participants who reported playing games, tex- ting, or using social media were also more likely to report engaging in more than one type of activity. Weak to moderately strong correlations were found between those reporting to play games, use social media, and/or text after they are in bed. This sug- gests that first-semester college students are engag- ing with their smartphone devices in multiple ways at night prior to going to sleep; the increased use of multiple types of media may exaggerate the po- tential for sleep disturbances. Future studies should focus on further describing these relationships.

Other studies have suggested that nighttime me- dia use has no negative effect on sleep among young adults, but instead, suggest that these individuals use their media devices to cope with their existing sleep problems. Taverniew and Willoughby sought to determine the directionality of the relationship between media use and sleep deprivation in first-

Evaluation of Nighttime Media Use and Sleep Patterns in First-semester College Students

54

year Canadian college students. They found that, although sleep problems acted as strong predictors of increased time spent watching TV and online, the relationship was not true when using media time to predict sleep problems.18 Further studies may be necessary to determine whether emerging adults are looking to their media devices to cope with their sleep problems or to prove further that the relationship may be unidirectional.

Although this study demonstrated that night- time media usage in the bedroom is associated with sleep behaviors, we did not find that it was associat- ed with change in weight or BMI. On average, our participants (both male and female) gained 0.55 kg over the duration of the study. Whereas still an overall increase in weight, the increase is small enough not to be statistically significant. Other studies have shown that first-year students do tend to gain weight, but generally allow for more time between measurements. Increases in weight for first-year college students in other studies range from 1.1 kg to 1.3 kg over about 3 months.23,24 However, none of the anthropometric variables changed significantly over the course of the study period. Given that the time between initial and fi- nal measurements was only 8 weeks, the period of time may not have been long enough to show any significant change in weight or other markers. Fu- ture studies should consider a longer period of time between measurements.

Limitations Self-reported behaviors can be inaccurate de-

pending on participants’ perception, potentially confounding results. Self-reported sleep and NMU may be associated with either recall or response bias. Further, we did not assess whether participants had any clinical conditions, such as obstructive sleep apnea, that could interfere with sleep independent- ly of sleep hygiene. Unfortunately, we were not able to assess physical activity and dietary habits, limit- ing our ability to discuss whether NMU is associat- ed with weight change. However, this is unlikely to be an issue in our study because weight remained stable over the study period. Our results did show that NMU was positively associated with weight and weight status; however, the directionality of this relationship could not be determined due to the cross-sectional study design and the relatively

small convenience sample. Due to the small sam- ple size, some of the statistically significant results may have been due to chance alone; future studies should be conducted using a larger sample size to validate these findings.

Conclusions Our data support the current literature in dem-

onstrating that college students, specifically first- semester students, are likely to experience chronic sleep deprivation and is novel in describing the sleep patterns and NMU habits of first-semester college students. This study also adds to the literature by suggesting a relationship exists between sleep be- haviors and nighttime media usage – as nighttime usage (texting, social media, gaming, etc.) increas- es, overall incidence of sleep interruptions increases and sleep quality tends to decrease. Future studies should focus on determining whether nighttime media usage and poor sleep hygiene do have a re- lationship with weight status and other markers of health, as well as determine the true directionality of the relationship between nighttime media usage and sleep quality.

Human Subjects Statement The University of Wyoming Institutional Review

Board (protocol #20160728JW01264) approved this study. and all students provided informed con- sent prior to participation.

Conflict of Interest Statement The authors have no conflicts of interest to

disclose.

Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge members of the Uni-

versity of Wyoming Pediatric Physical Activity Lab for their assistance in data collection and data management.

References 1. Flegal KM, Kruszon-Moran D, Carroll MD, et al. Trends

in obesity among adults in the United States, 2005 to 2014. JAMA. 2016;315(21):2284-2291.

2. Matthews CE, George SM, Moore SC, et al. Amount of time spent in sedentary behaviors and cause-specific mor- tality in US adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;95(2):437-445.

3. Porter VR, Buxton WG, Avidan AY. Sleep, cognition and

Whipps et al

Am J Health Behav.™ 2018;42(3):47-55 55 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.42.3.5

dementia. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2015;17(12):97. 4. Howard ME, Desai AV, Grunstein RR, et al. Sleepiness,

sleep-disordered breathing, and accident risk factors in commercial vehicle drivers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;170(9):1014-1021.

5. Curcio G, Ferrara M, Degennaro L. Sleep loss, learn- ing capacity and academic performance. Sleep Med Rev. 2006;10(5):323-337.

6. Patel SR, Hu FB. Short sleep duration and weight gain: a systematic review. Obesity. 2008;16(3):643-653.

7. Lund HG, Reider BD, Whiting AB, Prichard JR. Sleep patterns and predictors of disturbed sleep in a large population of college students. J Adolesc Health. 2010;46(2):124-132.

8. Adachi-Mejia AM, Edwards PM, Gilbert-Diamond D, et al. TXT me I’m only sleeping: adolescents with mo- bile phones in their bedroom. Fam Community Health. 2014;37(4):252-257.

9. Exelmans L, Van den Bulck J. Bedtime mobile phone use and sleep in adults. Soc Sci Med. 2016;148:93-101.

10. Chickering AW, Reisser L. Education and Identity. 2nd ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers; 1993.

11. Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF, Monk TH, et al. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Res. 1989;28(2):193- 213.

12. Watson NF, Badr MS, Belenky G, et al. Recommend- ed amount of sleep for a healthy adult: a joint con- sensus statement of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and Sleep Research Society. J Clin Sleep Med. 2015;11(8):931-952.

13. Taylor DJ, Bramoweth AD. Patterns and consequences of inadequate sleep in college students: substance use and motor vehicle accidents. J Adolesc Health. 2010;46(6):610- 612.

14. Thomsen DK, Yung Mehlsen M, Christensen S, Zachari-

ae R. Rumination—relationship with negative mood and sleep quality. Personal Individ Differ. 2003;34(7):1293- 1301.

15. Doane LD, Gress-Smith JL, Breitenstein RS. Multi- method assessments of sleep over the transition to college and the associations with depression and anxiety symp- toms. J Youth Adolesc. 2015;44(2):389-404.

16. Nyer M, Farabaugh A, Fehling K, et al. Relationship between sleep disturbance and depression, anxiety, and functioning in college students: sleep disturbance among college students. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30(9):873-880.

17. Lyznicki JM. Sleepiness, driving, and motor vehicle crash- es. JAMA. 1998;279(23):1908-1913.

18. Rosekind MR, Gregory KB, Mallis MM, et al. The cost of poor sleep: workplace productivity loss and associated costs: J Occup Environ Med. 2010;52(1):91-98.

19. Eliasson AH, Eliasson AH, Lettieri CJ. Differences in sleep habits, study time, and academic performance be- tween US-born and foreign-born college students. Sleep Breath. 2017;21(2):529-533.

20. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sleep and sleep disorders. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/ sleep/data_statistics.html. 2017. Accessed February 6, 2018.

21. Liu X, Uchiyama M, Kim K, et al. Sleep loss and daytime sleepiness in the general adult population of Japan. Psy- chiatry Res. 2000;93(1):1-11.

22. Steptoe A. Sleep duration and health in young adults. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(16):1689-1692.

23. Swift DL, Johannsen NM, Lavie CJ, et al. The role of exercise and physical activity in weight loss and mainte- nance. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2014;56(4):441-447.

24. de Vos P, Hanck C, Neisingh M, et al. Weight gain in freshman college students and perceived health. Prev Med Rep. 2015;2:229-234.

Copyright of American Journal of Health Behavior is the property of PNG Publications and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.